➤ The Parliament’s Law-Making Power: As per the Indian Constitution, the Parliament has the supreme authority to make laws and frame policies for the country.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 245 grants Parliament the power to make laws for the whole or any part of India.
⇒ Article 246 divides legislative powers between the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.
⇒ Parliament consists of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the President.
⇒ Types of Bills: Money Bills, Financial Bills, and Ordinary Bills must be passed by both Houses before becoming law.

★ The Parliament has the constitutional power to make laws and policies, making it the correct answer.

➤ 42nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution (1976): This amendment added the words “Socialist,” “Secular,” and “Integrity” to the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ The term “Secular” means that India has no official religion and treats all religions equally.
⇒ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, is known as the “Mini Constitution” due to extensive changes.
⇒ This amendment strengthened the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) and curtailed judicial review powers.

★ The 42nd Amendment explicitly declared India a secular nation.

➤ Basic Features of the Indian Constitution: The Indian Constitution is known for its unique features, ensuring democratic governance and stability.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Parliamentary System: India follows a parliamentary form of government where the executive is accountable to the legislature.
⇒ Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: Some provisions can be amended easily, while others require a special procedure.
⇒ Lengthiest Written Constitution: The Indian Constitution is the most detailed written constitution in the world.
⇒ Drawn from Multiple Sources: It borrows principles from various constitutions, including the UK, USA, Canada, and Ireland.

★ The Indian Constitution is influenced by multiple countries and not derived from a single source.
★ The term “Basic Structure Doctrine” was established in the Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973) and is crucial for exam preparation.
★ Parliamentary System, Lengthiest Constitution, and Blend of Rigidity & Flexibility are considered fundamental aspects of the Indian Constitution.

➤ Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP): These principles are enshrined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution and serve as guidelines for the government to establish social and economic justice.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ DPSPs are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts but are fundamental in governance.
⇒ Inspired by the Irish Constitution, they aim to create a welfare state.
⇒ These principles are divided into Socialistic, Gandhian, and Liberal-Intellectual principles.
⇒ Article 36-51 comprehensively covers DPSPs, directing state policies towards economic and social democracy.

★ Article 39(b) & (c) were given precedence over Fundamental Rights (Article 14 & 19) by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
★ The Minerva Mills case (1980) reinforced the balance between Fundamental Rights and DPSPs.
★ The 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added Article 21A, making education a fundamental right, aligning with Article 45 of DPSP.

➤ Fundamental Duties: These are enshrined in Part IV-A of the Indian Constitution under Article 51A, outlining the moral obligations of citizens.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ The Swaran Singh Committee (1976) recommended the inclusion of Fundamental Duties in the Constitution.
⇒ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added 10 Fundamental Duties to the Constitution.
⇒ The 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th Fundamental Duty, emphasizing the importance of education.
⇒ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be legally enforced.

★ The Swaran Singh Committee (1976) was set up by the Indira Gandhi government to suggest constitutional reforms.
★ Fundamental Duties were inspired by the Soviet Constitution (USSR).
★ While they are not enforceable by law, courts may refer to them when interpreting legal provisions.

➤ Charter of Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution: The concept of Fundamental Rights in India was influenced by various global constitutions, ensuring individual liberty and justice.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ The idea of Fundamental Rights in India was borrowed from the United States of America’s Constitution (Bill of Rights).
⇒ The Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution protects individual liberties against government interference.
⇒ Part III (Articles 12-35) of the Indian Constitution lists Fundamental Rights, ensuring equality, freedom, and protection from exploitation.
⇒ The Government of India Act, 1935 also influenced the structure of Fundamental Rights in India.

★ The U.S. Bill of Rights (1791) served as the primary model for India’s Fundamental Rights.
★ The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) further reinforced India’s commitment to individual freedoms.
★ Fundamental Rights are justiciable, meaning they can be enforced by courts through writ petitions under Article 32 (Supreme Court) and Article 226 (High Court).

➤ Fundamental Duties in the Indian Constitution: Fundamental Duties were added to promote a sense of responsibility among citizens toward the nation.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 51-A of the Indian Constitution deals with Fundamental Duties.
⇒ These duties were added through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee.
⇒ Originally, there were 10 Fundamental Duties, but the 86th Amendment Act, 2002, added an 11th duty related to providing education to children.
⇒ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced in a court of law.

★ Fundamental Duties are inspired by the Constitution of the USSR (Russia).
★ The 11th Fundamental Duty directs parents/guardians to ensure their children (6-14 years) receive education.
★ Although non-enforceable, these duties help in interpreting Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy.

➤ Qualifications for Membership in Vidhan Sabha (State Legislative Assembly): The Indian Constitution specifies certain eligibility criteria for becoming a Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA).
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 173 of the Indian Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership in the Vidhan Sabha.
⇒ The candidate must be a citizen of India.
⇒ The minimum age required is 25 years for contesting Vidhan Sabha elections.
⇒ The candidate must not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any State Government.
⇒ The candidate must possess qualifications as prescribed by Parliament.

★ Knowledge of politics is not a constitutional requirement to contest elections.
★ Disqualifications for membership are mentioned under Article 191, which includes insolvency, unsound mind, criminal conviction, and holding an office of profit.
★ The Representation of the People Act, 1951, further elaborates on the qualifications and disqualifications of candidates.

➤ Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP): These principles guide the government in policymaking and aim to establish social and economic democracy in India.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) are enshrined in Articles 36-51 of the Indian Constitution.
⇒ They were borrowed from the Irish Constitution (Ireland), which had adopted them from the Spanish Constitution.
⇒ The DPSPs are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by the courts, but they act as guiding principles for governance.
⇒ The Government of India Act, 1935, also influenced certain provisions of the DPSPs.
⇒ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, added three new DPSPs: Article 39A (Equal Justice & Free Legal Aid), Article 43A (Workers’ Participation in Management), and Article 48A (Protection of the Environment).

★ DPSPs aim to establish welfare state policies in areas such as social justice, economic welfare, and international peace.
★ The Fundamental Rights (inspired by the US Constitution) and DPSPs together form the core of Indian governance.
★ India directly adopted DPSPs from Ireland’s Constitution.

➤ Fundamental Duties in the Indian Constitution: These duties outline the moral and civic responsibilities of Indian citizens.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Fundamental Duties are mentioned in Article 51A of the Indian Constitution.
⇒ They were added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee.
⇒ Originally, there were 10 Fundamental Duties, but the 86th Amendment Act, 2002, added the 11th duty, which mandates parents/guardians to provide education to children aged 6-14 years.
⇒ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts, but they serve as a moral obligation for citizens.
⇒ They are inspired by the USSR Constitution and emphasize nationalism, unity, and respect for the Constitution.

★ Fundamental Duties promote patriotism, environmental protection, and respect for national symbols.

➤ Abolition of Titles in the Indian Constitution: The Indian Constitution prohibits the state from granting hereditary titles to maintain equality among citizens.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 18 of the Constitution abolishes titles except for military and academic distinctions.
⇒ Titles like ‘Sir’ and ‘Rai Bahadur’ awarded during British rule were abolished.
⇒ The state cannot confer titles like ‘Maharaja’ or ‘Nawab’, ensuring social equality.
⇒ Indian citizens cannot accept titles from foreign states without government permission.
⇒ Awards like Bharat Ratna, Padma Awards are allowed as they are not titles but national honors.

★ Article 18 explicitly deals with the abolition of titles.
★ It upholds the Right to Equality (Article 14-18) and prevents discrimination based on social status.

➤ Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty – This article guarantees that no person shall be deprived of their life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Fundamental Right: Article 21 falls under the Right to Freedom in Part III of the Constitution.
⇒ Expanded Scope: The Supreme Court has interpreted “life” to include right to dignity, livelihood, clean environment, and privacy.
⇒ Landmark Cases:
     ★ Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) – Expanded the meaning of “personal liberty.”
     ★ K.S. Puttaswamy Case (2017) – Recognized the Right to Privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21.
⇒ Includes Rights Like:
    ★ Right to Clean Air & Water (Environmental Protection).
    ★ Right to Livelihood (Olga Tellis Case, 1985).
    ★ Right to Die with Dignity (Recognized in cases related to passive euthanasia).

★ Article 21 is considered the heart of fundamental rights and has a wide interpretation by courts.
★ It ensures protection against arbitrary state action, making it one of the most important constitutional provisions.

➤ Article 368: Amendment Procedure of the Indian Constitution – This article provides the procedure for amending the Constitution to ensure its adaptability over time.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Types of Amendments:
    ★ Simple Majority – Requires a majority of members present and voting (e.g., formation of new states).
    ★ Special Majority – Requires a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, along with a majority of the total membership of each House.
    ★ Special Majority + Ratification by States – Needed for amendments affecting federal provisions like Article 368 itself, election of the President, and distribution of powers between the Union and States.
⇒ Landmark Case:
    ★ Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) – Established the Basic Structure Doctrine, stating that amendments cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution.
⇒ Important Amendments:
    ★ 42nd Amendment (1976) – Strengthened the powers of the central government and added the words “Socialist, Secular, and Integrity” to the Preamble.
    ★ 44th Amendment (1978) – Restored democratic values weakened during the Emergency.
    ★ 101st Amendment (2016) – Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST).

★ Article 368 ensures the flexibility and rigidity of the Constitution, balancing stability with the need for reforms.

➤ Writ of Habeas Corpus: Protection Against Illegal Detention – This writ is issued to produce a person who has been illegally detained or arrested before the court to determine the legality of their detention.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 22 of the Indian Constitution states that an arrested person must be presented before a Magistrate within 24 hours of the arrest. Failure to do so makes the detention unlawful.
⇒ Habeas Corpus means “to have the body” – It ensures that no one is detained without legal justification.
⇒ Any individual, including family members or friends, can file this writ in court on behalf of the detained person.
⇒ This writ can be issued against both public and private authorities involved in illegal detention.
⇒ Landmark Cases:
    ★ Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1978) – The Supreme Court extended the scope of Habeas Corpus to protect prisoners’ rights against inhumane treatment.
    ★ ADM Jabalpur vs. Shivkant Shukla (1976) – During the Emergency, the Supreme Court controversially ruled that Habeas Corpus could be suspended, but this was later overruled.

★ The writ of Habeas Corpus is a fundamental safeguard against unlawful arrests and detentions, ensuring the protection of individual liberty.

➤ Finance Commission of India: Constitutional Mention – The Finance Commission is mentioned in Article 280 of the Indian Constitution. It is responsible for recommending the distribution of financial resources between the Centre and States.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 280 mandates the President to constitute a Finance Commission every five years or earlier if necessary.
⇒ The Commission consists of a Chairman and four other members, appointed by the President of India.
⇒ Its primary role is to recommend the distribution of net proceeds of taxes between the Union and States.
⇒ The Finance Commission also advises on grants-in-aid to the states from the Consolidated Fund of India.
⇒ Important Finance Commissions:
    ★ 15th Finance Commission (2020-2025) – Chaired by N.K. Singh, it recommended 41% devolution of taxes to states.
    ★ 14th Finance Commission (2015-2020) – Chaired by Y.V. Reddy, it recommended 42% devolution to states.

★ Article 280 is crucial for understanding fiscal federalism in India, making it an important topic for competitive exams.

➤ Article 50: Separation of Judiciary from Executive – Article 50 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to take steps to separate the Judiciary from the Executive in the public services of the State.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Part of Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) – It falls under the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) in Part IV, which are non-justiciable but fundamental for governance.
⇒ Ensures Judicial Independence – The provision aims to establish an independent and impartial judiciary, free from the influence of the executive.
⇒ Separation of Powers – It aligns with the principle of separation of powers, ensuring that judicial functions are not interfered with by the executive.
⇒ Importance in Legal System – Helps maintain rule of law and fair administration of justice.

★ Article 50 plays a vital role in maintaining judicial independence, which is essential for the democratic structure of India.

➤ 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 & Fundamental Duties – The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added 10 Fundamental Duties to the Indian Constitution.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Inserted under Article 51A – Fundamental Duties were introduced in Part IV-A of the Constitution.
⇒ Based on Soviet Model – Inspired by the USSR (now Russia) Constitution.
⇒ Recommended by Swaran Singh Committee – This committee suggested their inclusion to emphasize civic responsibilities.
⇒ Later Addition – The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th Fundamental Duty, making the total 11 duties.

★ The 42nd Amendment originally added 10 Fundamental Duties, making it a significant change in Indian constitutional history.

➤ Fundamental Duties & Voting in Elections – The Right to Vote is a legal right, not a Fundamental Duty under the Indian Constitution.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Fundamental Duties are listed in Article 51A under Part IV-A of the Constitution.
⇒ Voting is a Constitutional Right under Article 326, but it is not a duty.
⇒ Swaran Singh Committee (1976) recommended Fundamental Duties – Added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
⇒ Total 11 Fundamental Duties – Initially 10 were added, and 1 more was included by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.

★ Voting is an important civic responsibility but not a Fundamental Duty, making it the correct answer.

➤ Magna Carta of India & Part III – Part III of the Indian Constitution, which deals with Fundamental Rights, is often called the “Magna Carta of India” due to its role in protecting citizens’ rights and liberties.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Part III (Articles 12-35) guarantees Fundamental Rights, ensuring equality, freedom, protection, and constitutional remedies.
⇒ The term “Magna Carta” originates from the 1215 English Charter, which limited the king’s powers and established legal rights for the people.
⇒ Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973) reinforced the importance of Fundamental Rights as part of the Constitution’s Basic Structure Doctrine.
⇒ Fundamental Rights are justiciable, meaning they can be enforced through the courts.

★ Part III safeguards individual rights and freedoms, making it the “Magna Carta of India” and the correct answer.

➤ Concept of Limited Government & Protection of Citizens’ Rights – The principle of limited government ensures that the powers of the ruling authority are restricted, preventing arbitrary actions against citizens.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Limited Government means that the government operates within a set framework, ensuring it does not exceed constitutional boundaries.
⇒ Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12-35) act as a safeguard against government overreach, protecting individual freedoms.
⇒ The Rule of Law, as established in A.K. Gopalan Case (1950) and Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973), ensures that no one is above the Constitution.
⇒ Judicial Review (Article 13) empowers the Supreme Court and High Courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

★ Fundamental Rights protect citizens from government excesses, making them the key element in the concept of limited government.

➤ President’s Rule & Article 356 – President’s Rule is imposed in a state when the President is satisfied that the state government cannot function as per the Constitution, usually based on the Governor’s report.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 356 of the Indian Constitution allows the President to impose President’s Rule in a state if there is a breakdown of constitutional machinery.
⇒ The initial period of President’s Rule is six months but can be extended up to a maximum of three years with parliamentary approval every six months.
⇒ The 44th Amendment Act (1978) restricted the extension beyond one year unless:
➤ A National Emergency (Article 352) is in operation in the whole or part of India.
➤ The Election Commission certifies that elections to the State Assembly cannot be held.
➤ Effects of President’s Rule:
⇒ The State Assembly is either dissolved or kept under suspension.
⇒ The Governor administers the state on behalf of the President.
⇒ The Parliament legislates on state subjects.

★ President’s Rule is initially imposed for six months, as per Article 356.

➤ Government of India Act 1858 – This Act marked the beginning of direct British rule over India, ending the rule of the East India Company after the 1857 Revolt.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Abolition of East India Company – The rule of the Company was abolished, and India came under the direct control of the British Crown.
⇒ Governor-General of India became the Viceroy – Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India in 1858.
⇒ Creation of the Secretary of State for India – A new office in the British government was established to handle Indian affairs, with 15-member advisory councils.
⇒ End of Doctrine of Lapse – British authorities promised to respect the rights of Indian rulers.
⇒ Increased Military Control – The British reorganized the army to prevent future revolts.

★ The Government of India Act 1858 transferred administration from the East India Company to the British Crown.

➤ Union Executive in the Indian Constitution – The Union Executive refers to the governing structure at the central level, headed by the President of India.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Articles 52 to 78 deal with the Union Executive, covering the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, and Attorney General of India.
⇒ Article 52 – Mandates the office of the President of India.
⇒ Article 53 – Vests executive power in the President, which is exercised either directly or through officers subordinate to him.
⇒ Article 54 & 55 – Explain the election process of the President by an electoral college.
⇒ Article 74 – Mandates the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister to aid and advise the President.
⇒ Article 76 – Defines the role of the Attorney General of India as the chief legal advisor to the government.

★ Articles 52 to 78 comprehensively define the Union Executive.

➤ Addition of Four New Directive Principles – The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 added four new Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) to the Indian Constitution.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ The amendment added Articles 39A, 43A, 48A, and 39(f) to Part IV of the Constitution.
⇒ Article 39A – Provides for free legal aid to the poor and weaker sections to ensure justice.
⇒ Article 43A – Ensures participation of workers in the management of industries.
⇒ Article 48A – Directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
⇒ Article 39(f) – Emphasizes the protection of children and youth against exploitation and moral degradation.

★ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, was a landmark amendment that strengthened DPSPs.

➤ Chief Executive Head of the State – The Governor is the constitutional head of a state in India.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 153 – States that there shall be a Governor for each state in India.
⇒ Appointment – The President of India appoints the Governor for a term of five years.
⇒ Executive Powers – The Governor exercises executive powers on the advice of the Chief Minister and the State Council of Ministers.
⇒ Legislative Role – The Governor summons, prorogues, and dissolves the State Legislative Assembly and gives assent to bills.
⇒ Ordinance Power (Article 213) – The Governor can promulgate ordinances when the state legislature is not in session.

★ The Governor is the Chief Executive Head of the State.