➤ Explorer: Vasco da Gama
➤ Country: Portugal
➤ Time Period: Late 15th century (1460/1469 – 1524 CE)

Key Highlights of Vasco da Gama’s Voyage:
✧ Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who discovered the sea route from Europe to India by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa.
✧ His historic voyage began in 1497 under the patronage of King Manuel I of Portugal and concluded when he arrived in Calicut (now Kozhikode), India, in 1498.
✧ This journey established a direct maritime link between Europe and India for the first time.

Significance of His Discovery:
✧ Opened up new trade opportunities between Europe and India, particularly for spices like pepper and cinnamon.
✧ Marked the beginning of European colonialism in India, with the Portuguese Empire establishing trading posts and colonies along the Indian coast.
✧ Gave Portugal a significant advantage in dominating the spice trade for several decades.

Later Contributions:
✧ Vasco da Gama returned to India on subsequent voyages, strengthening Portuguese influence in the Indian Ocean.
✧ In 1524, he was appointed the Portuguese Viceroy of India but died soon after reaching Cochin.

Legacy:
✧ His discovery of the sea route had a profound impact on global trade, initiating the Age of Exploration.
✧ Established Portugal as a dominant maritime power in the 16th century.
✧ Cities like Goa became prominent Portuguese colonies in India, leaving a lasting cultural and architectural legacy.

★ Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered the sea route from Europe to India in 1498.
★ His voyage opened up new trade routes, establishing Portugal as a major colonial power in the Indian Ocean.
★ This discovery played a crucial role in shaping global trade and colonial history for centuries.

➤ Official Name: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919
➤ Passed by: British Indian Government
➤ Year: 1919
➤ Proposed by: Sir Sidney Rowlatt, a British judge

Key Provisions of the Rowlatt Act:
✧ Gave the British colonial government the authority to arrest and detain any person without a trial for up to two years.
✧ Allowed the government to search premises without warrants.
✧ Restricted the freedom of press and expression.
✧ Prevented suspects from accessing legal counsel during trials.

Purpose of the Act:
✧ Aimed to curb revolutionary activities and suppress nationalist movements in India.
✧ Enacted in response to the growing unrest and revolutionary movements during World War I.
✧ Intended to extend the wartime emergency powers even after the war ended.

Indian Response:
✧ Strongly opposed by Indian leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, who called it the “Black Act” due to its oppressive nature.
✧ Led to widespread protests, including the launch of non-violent civil disobedience movements.
✧ Triggered events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on 13 April 1919, where British troops under General Dyer opened fire on peaceful protestors.

Significance:
✧ Marked a turning point in India’s struggle for independence, intensifying the freedom movement.
✧ Unified various Indian communities against British colonial policies.
✧ Eventually led to the rise of mass movements such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920).

★ The Rowlatt Act of 1919 gave the British Indian government the power to arrest and detain individuals without trial.
★ It faced strong opposition from Indian leaders and was a major catalyst for the freedom struggle.
★ The Act’s oppressive measures led to landmark events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the rise of non-violent resistance under Gandhi’s leadership.

➤ Sent by: Seleucus I Nicator (Founder of the Seleucid Empire, successor of Alexander the Great)
➤ To the court of: Chandragupta Maurya (Founder of the Maurya Empire)
➤ Time Period: Around 302 BCE

Key Highlights of Megasthenes’ Visit:
✧ Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador and diplomat sent to establish diplomatic and trade relations between the Seleucid Empire and the Mauryan Empire.
✧ His visit followed a treaty between Seleucus I and Chandragupta Maurya, which ended conflicts between the two empires and established peaceful relations.
✧ He stayed at the Mauryan court in Pataliputra (modern-day Patna).

Contributions of Megasthenes:
✧ Authored the famous book “Indica”, which provided a detailed account of Indian society, administration, geography, and culture during the Mauryan period.
✧ Gave descriptions of Chandragupta Maurya’s governance system, including the role of bureaucracy, military organization, and urban planning.
✧ Recorded observations on the caste system, Indian customs, and economic activities like agriculture and trade.

Significance of His Account:
✧ Indica is considered one of the earliest foreign records of India by a Greek historian.
✧ Though the original text is lost, parts of his work survive through quotations in later Greek and Roman texts by writers like Arrian, Strabo, and Diodorus.
✧ His accounts provide valuable insight into the Mauryan administration and socio-political structure of ancient India.

Legacy:
✧ Megasthenes’ work remains a crucial source of historical information on ancient India.
✧ Helped foster diplomatic and cultural ties between India and Greece during the Hellenistic period.

★ Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya to establish diplomatic relations between the Seleucid and Mauryan empires.
★ His book, Indica, offers valuable insights into the governance, society, and culture of India during the Mauryan period.
★ Megasthenes’ accounts continue to be a significant historical source for understanding ancient Indian civilization.

➤ Battle: Battle of Kannauj (also known as the Battle of Bilgram)
➤ Date: 17 May 1540
➤ Fought Between:
✧ Sher Shah Suri (Founder of the Suri Empire)
✧ Mughal Emperor Humayun (Son of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire)

Key Highlights of the Battle:
✧ The battle took place near Kannauj in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
✧ It was a decisive conflict that followed the Battle of Chausa (1539 CE), where Humayun had already suffered defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri.
✧ Humayun’s poorly coordinated battle strategy and internal conflicts with his brothers weakened the Mughal position.

Reasons for the Battle:
✧ Sher Shah Suri aimed to establish his dominance over North India by overthrowing the weakening Mughal Empire.
✧ Humayun attempted to reclaim his lost territory after his earlier defeat but lacked unity among his forces.

Outcome:
✧ Sher Shah Suri decisively defeated the Mughal forces, forcing Humayun into exile.
✧ Humayun fled to Sindh and later sought refuge in Persia.
✧ This defeat marked the beginning of the Suri Empire, which lasted until 1555 CE.

Significance:
✧ Established Sher Shah Suri as the ruler of North India and a formidable power in the subcontinent.
✧ Humayun’s defeat led to a 15-year interruption in the Mughal Empire’s rule over North India.
✧ Sher Shah introduced several administrative reforms, including the currency system (Rupiya) and the construction of the Grand Trunk Road.

Legacy:
✧ Humayun eventually reclaimed his empire in 1555 CE after defeating the successors of Sher Shah Suri.
✧ The battle showcased Sher Shah’s military brilliance and strategic superiority over the Mughals.

★ The Battle of Kannauj was fought between Sher Shah Suri and Mughal Emperor Humayun in 1540.
★ Humayun’s defeat led to the establishment of the Suri Empire and a temporary halt to Mughal rule in North India.
★ Sher Shah Suri’s victory reshaped the political landscape of North India and introduced key administrative reforms.

➤ Founder: Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
➤ Dynasty: Tughlaq Dynasty
➤ Founded in: 1321 CE
➤ Location: South Delhi, India

Key Highlights of Tughluqabad:
✧ Built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty, as the third historic city of Delhi.
✧ Intended to serve as a fortified capital city to defend the empire from external invasions, especially by Mongols.
✧ The fort was constructed using red sandstone and featured thick defensive walls, sloping battlements, and high towers for strategic advantage.

Architectural Features:
✧ Massive fortifications with sloped walls, a distinctive feature of Tughlaq architecture designed for better defense.
✧ Included palaces, mosques, and residential areas within the fort.
✧ A separate citadel for the royal family was constructed within the fort’s premises.
✧ The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is located nearby, connected to the fort by a causeway.

Reasons for Construction:
✧ Built primarily to protect the empire from frequent Mongol invasions.
✧ Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq wanted to establish a new capital that reflected his authority and vision for a strong military defense.

Decline of Tughluqabad:
✧ The fort was soon abandoned after Ghiyasuddin’s death in 1325 CE and the rise of his successor, Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
✧ Legends suggest that a conflict with the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya led to the fort’s curse of abandonment, as construction interrupted the saint’s projects.
✧ The city remained incomplete and fell into decline due to water scarcity and the shifting of the capital.

Legacy:
✧ Tughluqabad Fort remains one of Delhi’s most iconic historical sites and showcases early Indo-Islamic architecture.
✧ It symbolizes the military ambitions of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the architectural innovation of the Tughlaq period.
✧ A major tourist attraction today, it reflects Delhi’s rich medieval history.

★ Tughluqabad was founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq as a fortified city to defend his empire from invasions.
★ The city’s impressive fortifications and strategic location highlight the Tughlaq dynasty’s military focus.
★ Though abandoned shortly after its construction, Tughluqabad remains an enduring symbol of medieval Delhi’s architectural heritage.

➤ Governor-General: Lord Dalhousie (Served from 1848 to 1856)
➤ First Railway Line Inaugurated: 16 April 1853
➤ Route: From Mumbai (Bombay) to Thane
➤ Distance Covered: Approximately 34 km (21 miles)

Key Highlights of the Introduction of Railways in India:
✧ The first railway line in India was introduced under the leadership of Lord Dalhousie, who strongly believed in the transformative power of railways for administrative and commercial purposes.
✧ The railway was operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR), one of the earliest railway companies in British India.
✧ The journey from Mumbai to Thane was completed in about 57 minutes using three steam locomotives named Sultan, Sindh, and Sahib.

Objectives of Introducing Railways:
✧ To improve administrative efficiency and facilitate quicker movement of British troops across the colony.
✧ To promote the transport of raw materials from the hinterlands to ports for export to Britain.
✧ To encourage trade and support the growing economic interests of the British East India Company.

Dalhousie’s Railway Plan:
✧ Proposed a comprehensive network of railway lines connecting key cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai.
✧ Introduced the concept of guaranteed returns for private investors in railway development, attracting British capital for infrastructure projects.
✧ Focused on creating both broad-gauge and meter-gauge railway lines across India.

Significance of the Railways:
✧ Revolutionized transportation and communication in India.
✧ Helped integrate various regions, fostering a sense of economic unity.
✧ Played a crucial role in the industrialization of India, facilitating the movement of goods and people.

Legacy:
✧ The railway network laid the foundation for India’s modern transportation infrastructure.
✧ Railways became an essential tool for British colonial control, but also indirectly contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism by connecting diverse regions.

★ The first railway line in British India was introduced in 1853 under Lord Dalhousie, connecting Mumbai and Thane.
★ It marked the beginning of modern transportation in India, promoting trade, administrative control, and economic growth.
★ The railways eventually became a unifying force, influencing India’s socio-economic development and national integration.

➤ Founded by: Jyotirao Govindrao Phule
➤ Founded in: 1873
➤ Location: Pune, Maharashtra

Key Objectives of Satyashodhak Samaj:
✧ Established to promote social equality and fight against the oppression of lower castes in Hindu society.
✧ Worked for the upliftment of Shudras, Dalits, and other marginalized communities.
✧ Challenged the dominance of Brahmanical orthodoxy and the rigid caste system.
✧ Promoted women’s rights, including education and widow remarriage.

Major Activities and Reforms:
✧ Organized campaigns against untouchability, caste discrimination, and social injustices.
✧ Established schools for girls and children from lower-caste communities.
✧ Criticized religious superstitions and encouraged rational thinking and scientific reasoning.
✧ Advocated for equal rights for women, including education and property ownership.

Key Beliefs:
✧ Emphasized the need for education as a tool for social transformation.
✧ Advocated for the belief in a formless God and rejected the idea of priestly intermediaries in worship.
✧ Called for the eradication of caste-based discrimination and promoted the idea of social justice for all.

Legacy:
✧ The Satyashodhak Samaj played a significant role in Maharashtra’s social reform movement.
✧ Inspired future leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in their fight for Dalit rights and social equality.
✧ Remains a symbol of resistance against caste oppression and continues to influence modern social reform movements in India.

★ The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873 to challenge caste oppression and promote social equality.
★ The organization worked for the upliftment of marginalized communities and emphasized education and women’s rights.
★ It laid the foundation for future social reform movements in India, particularly those led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

➤ Founded in: 1897
➤ Headquarters: Belur Math, West Bengal, India
➤ Named After: Ramakrishna Paramahansa (Spiritual Guru of Swami Vivekananda)

Key Objectives of the Ramakrishna Mission:
✧ Established to promote spiritual development, humanitarian service, and social reform based on the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
✧ Aimed at combining spirituality with practical service to humanity, following the ideal of “Atmano Mokshartham Jagat Hitaya Cha” (For one’s own salvation and for the welfare of the world).
✧ Worked toward the elimination of caste discrimination, poverty, and ignorance through education and social welfare programs.

Major Activities and Contributions:
✧ Set up schools, colleges, and hospitals across India to promote education and healthcare.
✧ Provided disaster relief and humanitarian aid during natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes, and famines.
✧ Promoted interfaith harmony and fostered the understanding of different religions, upholding the message of universal brotherhood.
✧ Worked to empower women through education and vocational training programs.

Philosophy and Teachings:
✧ Emphasized the importance of self-realization, service to humanity, and universal tolerance.
✧ Inspired by Ramakrishna’s belief in the unity of all religions and the idea that all paths lead to the same truth.
✧ Advocated for a balanced life of spiritual growth and active social service.

Legacy:
✧ The Ramakrishna Mission remains a leading organization in India’s spiritual and social reform landscape.
✧ Swami Vivekananda’s teachings inspired India’s youth movements and continue to influence educational and spiritual institutions worldwide.
✧ The organization has a global presence, with centers in various countries promoting interfaith dialogue and humanitarian efforts.

★ Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to promote humanitarian work, education, and spiritual growth.
★ The mission follows the teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahansa, emphasizing service, spiritual development, and social reform.
★ It remains a vital force in India’s educational, humanitarian, and spiritual initiatives, with a global influence on interfaith understanding.

➤ Full Name: Abul Hasan Yamin-ud-Din Khusro
➤ Lifespan: 1253–1325 CE
➤ Known as: Tuti-e-Hind (“Parrot of India”)

Key Highlights of Amir Khusro’s Life:
✧ A renowned Sufi musician, poet, and scholar associated with the Delhi Sultanate.
✧ Served as a court poet under several rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, including Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
✧ A devoted disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, the famous Sufi saint of Delhi.

Contributions to Indian Music and Literature:
✧ Regarded as the father of Qawwali—a form of devotional music in Sufism.
✧ Credited with the invention of several musical instruments, such as the sitar and the tabla (although this is debated among historians).
✧ Composed numerous ghazals, riddles (paheliyan), and folksongs in Persian, Hindavi (early form of Hindi-Urdu), and Braj Bhasha.
✧ Introduced Persian musical elements into Indian classical music, contributing to the development of Hindustani classical music.

Major Works:
✧ “Khazain-ul-Futuh” – Chronicles the victories of Alauddin Khilji.
✧ “Tughlaqnama” – A historical account of the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
✧ Composed numerous ghazals and ruba’is (quatrains) known for their lyrical beauty.

Why He Was Called Tuti-e-Hind:
✧ His eloquence and mastery of language earned him the title “Tuti-e-Hind” (Parrot of India), symbolizing his ability to eloquently express the voice of India through his poetry and music.
✧ Celebrated for blending Persian and Indian cultural elements, making him a symbol of India’s rich cultural syncretism.

Legacy:
✧ A key figure in shaping Indo-Persian culture and literature.
✧ His poetry and music continue to influence Indian classical music and Sufi traditions today.
✧ Revered in both India and Pakistan for his literary and musical contributions.

★ Amir Khusro, known as Tuti-e-Hind (Parrot of India), was a renowned poet, musician, and Sufi mystic associated with the Delhi Sultanate.
★ He made significant contributions to Indian classical music, Persian literature, and the development of Qawwali.
★ His legacy continues to influence Indian culture, music, and literature across generations.

➤ Full Name: Sir Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
➤ Language: Urdu
➤ First Published: 16 August 1904 in the weekly journal Ittehad
➤ Title of the Poem: “Tarana-e-Hindi” (Anthem of the People of Hind)

Key Highlights of the Song ‘Sare Jahan Se Achha’:
✧ Written by Muhammad Iqbal, a renowned philosopher, poet, and politician in British India.
✧ The poem reflects Iqbal’s deep love for India and promotes unity, patriotism, and cultural pride.
✧ It praises the beauty of India and expresses hope for a united and prosperous nation.

Famous Lines from the Poem:
“Sāre Jahān Se Achchā, Hindositān Hamārā” (Better than the entire world, is our Hindustan)

Themes and Messages:
✧ Highlights the cultural unity of India despite its diversity.
✧ Encourages a sense of national pride and solidarity among Indians.
✧ Reflects Iqbal’s early nationalist thoughts before he later advocated for the separate nation of Pakistan.

Historical Significance:
✧ The poem became a symbol of resistance against British colonial rule.
✧ Widely used in freedom movements and recited at various nationalist gatherings and protests.
✧ Remains a patriotic anthem and is sung at Indian educational institutions and national events to this day.

Legacy:
✧ The song continues to hold a special place in Indian national consciousness.
✧ Set to music by famous Indian musicians, including a notable rendition by Pandit Ravi Shankar for All India Radio.
✧ Iqbal is regarded as the “Poet of the East” and is remembered for his literary contributions across both India and Pakistan.

★ Muhammad Iqbal wrote the patriotic song “Sare Jahan Se Achha Hindustan Hamara” in 1904, which became a symbol of national unity and pride.
★ The poem remains a timeless anthem of India’s cultural heritage and continues to inspire patriotism across generations.
★ Despite Iqbal’s later association with the Pakistan movement, his poem is still celebrated for its universal message of Indian unity and love for the nation.

➤ Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, not by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
➤ Vidyasagar was a social reformer, best known for his role in promoting widow remarriage and women’s education.
➤ Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Aligarh Movement in 1875 to promote modern education among Muslims in India.
➤ He established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
➤ Swami Dayanand Saraswati established Arya Samaj in 1875 to promote Vedic traditions and social reform.
➤ The movement opposed idol worship, caste discrimination, and encouraged education for women.
➤ Mahadev Govind Ranade, a leading social reformer, played a major role in the formation of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in 1870.
➤ The Sabha aimed to promote political awareness and represented public opinion against British policies.

Who Was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar?
✧ A 19th-century social reformer from Bengal, known for his work in women’s education and widow remarriage.
✧ Instrumental in the passing of the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
✧ Established schools for girls and worked to remove societal restrictions on women’s education.

★ Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, not Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
★ Vidyasagar was a great social reformer known for his efforts in widow remarriage and women’s education.

➤ Emperor: Ashoka the Great (Mauryan Empire)
➤ Time Period: 3rd century BCE
➤ Missionaries Sent:
✧ Son: Mahendra (Mahinda)
✧ Daughter: Sanghmitra (Sanghamitta)

Key Highlights of the Mission:
✧ Emperor Ashoka adopted Buddhism after the Kalinga War and became committed to spreading the message of Dhamma (Buddhist teachings) across Asia.
✧ He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra as Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka to promote Buddhism.
✧ They were received warmly by King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka, who later converted to Buddhism.

Contributions of Mahendra and Sanghmitra:
✧ Mahendra played a crucial role in establishing Theravāda Buddhism in Sri Lanka and helped build the first Buddhist monasteries on the island.
✧ Sanghmitra brought a sapling of the Bodhi tree (under which Buddha attained enlightenment) from Bodh Gaya, which was planted at Anuradhapura—a site that remains sacred to Sri Lankan Buddhists.

Impact of Ashoka’s Mission:
✧ Led to the widespread acceptance of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, where it remains the majority religion today.
✧ Strengthened cultural and religious ties between India and Sri Lanka.
✧ The missions influenced art, architecture, and literature in Sri Lanka, laying the foundation for future Buddhist traditions across Southeast Asia.

Legacy:
✧ Sri Lanka became a major center for Theravāda Buddhism, influencing regions like Myanmar, Thailand, and Cambodia.
✧ The Bodhi tree planted by Sanghmitra is considered one of the oldest living trees with a recorded history.

★ Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka to spread the message of Dhamma.
★ Their efforts established Buddhism in Sri Lanka, making it a central hub for Theravāda Buddhism.
★ The missions strengthened India’s religious and cultural connections with Sri Lanka, which continue to this day.

➤ First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE)
✧ Fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi.
✧ Marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.
✧ Babur’s victory was significant due to his use of gunpowder and field artillery, introducing new warfare techniques in India.

➤ Battle of Khanwa (1527 CE)
✧ Fought between Babur and Rana Sanga of Mewar.
✧ Established Mughal dominance over Rajput territories.
✧ Babur used superior artillery and introduced defensive tactics to secure victory.

➤ Battle of Ghaghra (1529 CE)
✧ Fought between Babur and the combined forces of Mahmud Lodi (brother of Ibrahim Lodi) and Afghan chieftains.
✧ Ensured Babur’s control over Bihar and parts of Eastern India.
✧ Marked the consolidation of Mughal authority across North India.

➤ Battle of Chausa (1539 CE)
✧ Fought between Humayun (Babur’s successor) and Sher Shah Suri.
✧ Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun, leading to the establishment of the Suri Empire.
✧ Humayun was forced into exile, and Sher Shah became the de facto ruler of North India.

➤ Text: Rig Veda Samhita
➤ Total Mandalas: 10 (Books or Divisions)
➤ Language: Vedic Sanskrit
➤ Oldest Religious Text: Considered the earliest and most important Veda among the four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda).

Structure of the Rig Veda:
✧ The Rig Veda is divided into 10 Mandalas (books), containing a total of 1,028 hymns (suktas) and over 10,000 verses (mantras).
✧ Each Mandala contains hymns dedicated to various deities, including Agni (fire god), Indra (king of gods), Soma, Varuna, and Mitra.

Classification of Mandalas:
➤ Mandalas 2–7 (Family Books):
✧ Known as family books because they were composed by specific families of sages or rishis, such as Gritsamada, Vishwamitra, and Bharadvaja.
✧ Considered the oldest section of the Rig Veda.
➤ Mandala 1, 8, 9, and 10 (Later Books):
✧ These Mandalas were composed later and contain more philosophical hymns and ritualistic content.
✧ Mandala 9 is entirely dedicated to Soma, a sacred ritual drink.
✧ Mandala 10 contains the famous Purusha Sukta, which describes the origin of the caste system.

Significance of the Rig Veda:
✧ Provides valuable insights into early Vedic society, religious practices, and social structure.
✧ Highlights the importance of nature worship and sacrificial rituals (yajnas).
✧ Contains references to early forms of political organization, such as sabhas and samitis (tribal assemblies).

★ The Rig Veda Samhita consists of 10 Mandalas, containing hymns dedicated to various deities and natural forces.
★ Mandalas 2–7 are the oldest and are called family books, while the later Mandalas focus on philosophical and ritualistic content.
★ The Rig Veda is the oldest religious text of Hinduism and offers a glimpse into early Indo-Aryan society and beliefs.

➤ Founder: Dantidurga (also known as Dantivarman)
➤ Dynasty: Rashtrakuta Dynasty
➤ Time Period: 8th century CE (Reign: c. 735–756 CE)
➤ Capital: Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed, Karnataka)

Key Highlights of Dantidurga’s Reign:
✧ Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty, which emerged as a powerful empire in the Deccan region of India.
✧ Originally a feudatory under the Chalukyas of Badami, Dantidurga successfully overthrew them and established an independent kingdom.
✧ Defeated the Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman II, marking the beginning of Rashtrakuta dominance in the Deccan.

Military Achievements:
✧ Extended the Rashtrakuta kingdom across Maharashtra, Karnataka, and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
✧ Successfully conducted military campaigns against rival dynasties like the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Palas.
✧ Strengthened alliances with other regional powers, enhancing Rashtrakuta influence across the Indian subcontinent.

Cultural Contributions:
✧ Patronized Hinduism and Jainism, contributing to the cultural and religious diversity of the empire.
✧ Laid the foundation for the Rashtrakuta dynasty’s later contributions to art and architecture, including the famous Kailasa temple at Ellora, built under his successor Krishna I.

Legacy:
✧ The Rashtrakutas became one of the most powerful dynasties in early medieval India, rivaling the Palas of Bengal and the Gurjara-Pratiharas of North India.
✧ Set the stage for the development of Kannada literature and Deccan architecture.
✧ Left a lasting impact on the political and cultural landscape of the Indian subcontinent.

★ Dantidurga, also known as Dantivarman, was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the 8th century CE.
★ He established Rashtrakuta supremacy by overthrowing the Chalukyas and expanding his kingdom across the Deccan region.
★ His reign laid the groundwork for the Rashtrakutas’ cultural and architectural contributions in early medieval India.

➤ Event: Second Session of the Indian National Congress (INC)
➤ Year: 1886
➤ Location: Calcutta (now Kolkata)
➤ President: Dadabhai Naoroji

Key Highlights of the Second INC Session:
✧ Dadabhai Naoroji became the first Indian to preside over the Indian National Congress.
✧ The session saw a significant increase in participation, with over 436 delegates attending from different parts of India.
✧ The focus was on promoting national unity and fostering dialogue between Indians and the British government for political reforms.

Contributions of Dadabhai Naoroji:
✧ Known as the “Grand Old Man of India” for his dedication to the freedom struggle.
✧ First Indian to become a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons.
✧ Propagated the “Drain of Wealth” theory, highlighting how Britain was economically exploiting India.
✧ Worked for economic reforms, the promotion of Indian rights, and the establishment of political representation for Indians in governance.

Significance of the 1886 Session:
✧ Strengthened the Indian National Congress as a platform for moderate political reform.
✧ Encouraged leaders from various regions and communities to unite for constitutional reforms.
✧ Marked a key moment in the early stages of India’s organized political movement against British colonial rule.

Legacy:
✧ Dadabhai Naoroji’s leadership helped legitimize the Congress as a national body with broad representation.
✧ His economic critiques laid the intellectual groundwork for future nationalist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi.

★ Dadabhai Naoroji presided over the second session of the Indian National Congress in 1886, becoming the first Indian to lead the Congress.
★ The session played a crucial role in expanding the Congress’s national influence and fostering political unity across India.
★ Naoroji’s economic theories became foundational in the Indian freedom struggle against British colonial exploitation.

➤ Title: Devanampriya Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods, He Who Looks Upon with Kindness)
➤ Dynasty: Maurya Dynasty
➤ Reign: 268 BCE – 232 BCE
➤ Capital: Pataliputra (modern-day Patna, Bihar)

Key Highlights of Ashoka’s Reign:
✧ One of the greatest rulers of ancient India, known for his contributions to Buddhism and social reforms.
✧ Adopted the titles “Devanampriya” (Beloved of the Gods) and “Piyadasi” (Of Gracious Mien), which appear frequently in his edicts and inscriptions.
✧ Initially known for his military conquests, including the brutal Kalinga War.

Ashoka’s Transformation:
✧ After witnessing the devastation of the Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE), Ashoka embraced Buddhism and non-violence.
✧ Focused on spreading Dhamma (moral teachings) across his empire and to foreign nations like Sri Lanka, Greece, and Southeast Asia.
✧ Issued Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts that promoted values such as compassion, tolerance, and respect for all life.

Significance of the Title “Devanampriya Piyadasi”:
✧ Used in Ashoka’s inscriptions to reflect his benevolent and compassionate rule.
✧ These inscriptions were written in various scripts like Brahmi and Kharosthi and in languages such as Prakrit and Greek.
✧ His edicts were discovered across India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, highlighting the vast extent of his empire.

Legacy:
✧ Played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism across Asia, influencing countries like Sri Lanka, China, Thailand, and Myanmar.
✧ The Ashoka Chakra from his Lion Capital at Sarnath is now part of India’s national flag.
✧ Regarded as a symbol of ethical governance and moral leadership in Indian history.

★ Devanampriya Piyadasi refers to Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, known for his adoption of Buddhism and promotion of Dhamma.
★ His reign marked a turning point in Indian history, shifting from conquest to compassionate governance.
★ Ashoka’s legacy lives on as a symbol of non-violence, peace, and moral responsibility.

➤ Moved by: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
➤ Event: First Session of the Constituent Assembly of India
➤ Date: 13 December 1946
➤ Adopted on: 22 January 1947

Key Highlights of the Objective Resolution:
✧ The Objective Resolution laid down the guiding principles for India’s Constitution.
✧ It outlined the fundamental ideals and goals that would shape Independent India’s political, social, and economic framework.
✧ Served as the foundation for the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.

Main Objectives of the Resolution:
✧ India shall be an Independent Sovereign Republic.
✧ Guaranteed justice, equality, and freedom to all its citizens, irrespective of caste, creed, or gender.
✧ Protection of the rights of minorities, backward classes, and tribal communities.
✧ Ensured the safeguarding of sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
✧ Promoted international peace and fostered friendly relations with other nations.

Significance of the Objective Resolution:
✧ Provided the philosophical framework for drafting the Indian Constitution.
✧ Reflected India’s commitment to democracy, secularism, and social justice.
✧ Established a vision for political freedom and inclusive governance.

Legacy:
✧ The ideas presented in the Objective Resolution became the basis for the Preamble of the Indian Constitution, which was adopted on 26 November 1949.
✧ Embodied the aspirations of the Indian freedom struggle and served as a guiding light for future governance.

★ The Objective Resolution was moved by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946 during the first session of the Constituent Assembly.
★ It served as the foundation for India’s Constitution and eventually evolved into the Preamble.
★ The resolution reflected India’s commitment to justice, equality, liberty, and international peace.

➤ Dynasty: Chalukya Dynasty (Badami Chalukyas)
➤ Reign: 610 CE – 642 CE
➤ Capital: Vatapi (present-day Badami, Karnataka)

Key Highlights of Pulakeshin II’s Reign:
✧ Pulakeshin II was one of the most powerful rulers of the Chalukya Dynasty.
✧ Known for his military prowess and administrative capabilities, he expanded the Chalukya Empire across Deccan India.
✧ Successfully defended his kingdom against Harshavardhana, the ruler of North India, stopping his expansion into the south.

Major Military Achievements:
✧ Defeated the Kadambas, Gangas, and Alupas in southern India to consolidate his empire.
✧ Won significant victories against the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, though later suffered defeat at the hands of Narasimhavarman I.
✧ Extended his influence over Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Tamil Nadu.

Cultural Contributions:
✧ Patronized art, architecture, and literature during his reign.
✧ Commissioned various rock-cut cave temples in Badami, showcasing early examples of Chalukyan architecture.
✧ Promoted Sanskrit and Kannada literature through royal patronage.

Legacy:
✧ His reign marked the golden age of the Chalukya Dynasty.
✧ Successfully established the Chalukyas as a major power in southern India.
✧ Remembered for his strong military defense and contribution to South Indian culture and architecture.

★ Pulakeshin II was a prominent ruler of the Chalukya Dynasty, known for expanding his empire across the Deccan.
★ He successfully resisted northern invasions and strengthened Chalukya dominance in South India.
★ His reign contributed significantly to Indian art, architecture, and cultural heritage.

➤ Event: Champaran Satyagraha
➤ Year: 1917
➤ Location: Champaran, Bihar
➤ Invited Leader: Mahatma Gandhi

Key Highlights of Raj Kumar Shukla’s Role:
✧ Raj Kumar Shukla was an Indigo farmer from Champaran, Bihar, who faced severe exploitation under the Tinkathia system.
✧ The system forced farmers to grow indigo on 3/20th of their land and sell it at fixed prices to British planters, causing immense suffering.
✧ Shukla persistently followed Mahatma Gandhi and convinced him to visit Champaran to witness the plight of the peasants firsthand.

Mahatma Gandhi’s Involvement in Champaran:
✧ Gandhi agreed to visit Champaran after meeting Shukla at the Congress session in Lucknow (1916).
✧ Gandhi’s arrival in Champaran marked the beginning of his first civil disobedience movement in India.
✧ He led a successful Satyagraha against the unjust indigo cultivation system, forcing the British government to abolish the Tinkathia system.

Significance of Champaran Satyagraha:
✧ Marked Mahatma Gandhi’s entry into the Indian freedom struggle through non-violent resistance.
✧ Exposed the harsh realities of colonial exploitation in rural India.
✧ Empowered Indian peasants to stand against oppressive colonial policies.

Legacy:
✧ The movement is considered the first successful Satyagraha led by Gandhi in India.
✧ Raj Kumar Shukla is remembered as the man who initiated Gandhi’s involvement in India’s struggle for independence by drawing attention to the suffering of Champaran’s peasants.

★ Raj Kumar Shukla invited Mahatma Gandhi to Champaran, leading to the historic Satyagraha movement against indigo plantation exploitation.
★ The Champaran Satyagraha marked Gandhi’s first civil disobedience movement in India and highlighted the power of non-violent resistance.
★ Shukla’s efforts played a pivotal role in shaping India’s freedom struggle by drawing national attention to the plight of rural peasants.

➤ Act: Charter Act of 1833
➤ Passed by: British Parliament
➤ Governor-General of India at the time: Lord William Bentinck

Key Highlights of the Charter Act of 1833:
✧ Abolished the monopoly of the East India Company over trade with China and other countries, except for trade in tea and the opium trade initially.
✧ Marked the end of the East India Company’s commercial activities, transforming it into a purely administrative and political body.
✧ Declared the British territories in India as one political unit under the title “The Government of India.”

Impact on Trade with China:
✧ Prior to the Act, the East India Company held exclusive rights over the lucrative tea trade and opium trade with China.
✧ The act allowed private British merchants to enter the China trade market, which had been previously monopolized by the company.
✧ Led to increased British commercial activity in China, contributing to tensions that later resulted in the First Opium War (1839–1842).

Other Important Provisions of the Act:
✧ Created the position of Governor-General of India (formerly Governor-General of Bengal) with extended authority across all British territories in India.
✧ Appointed Lord Macaulay to introduce English education in India, leading to the spread of Western-style education.
✧ Legal reforms aimed at establishing a law commission to draft a uniform legal code for British India.

Significance:
✧ Marked the beginning of the centralization of British administration in India.
✧ Laid the foundation for the introduction of English education and Western legal systems in India.
✧ Strengthened British economic interests in Asia, particularly in the Chinese tea and opium trade.

★ The Charter Act of 1833 abolished the East India Company’s monopoly on trade with China, opening the market to private British merchants.
★ It marked a turning point in British colonial policy, transforming the East India Company into an administrative body.
★ The act also laid the groundwork for administrative, legal, and educational reforms in India under British rule.

➤ Event: Benaras Session of the Indian National Congress (INC)
➤ Year: 1905
➤ President: Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Key Highlights of the Benaras Session (1905):
✧ The Swadeshi Movement was formally endorsed by the Indian National Congress (INC) during this session.
✧ The movement was launched as a response to the Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon in 1905.
✧ Focused on promoting indigenous industries and boycotting British goods to undermine British economic control.

Role of Gopal Krishna Gokhale:
✧ As the president of the session, Gokhale emphasized the importance of moderate methods like constitutional agitation, education, and legislative reforms.
✧ Advocated for peaceful resistance and worked to bridge the gap between moderates and extremists within the Congress.
✧ His leadership balanced the aggressive nationalism of leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak while maintaining focus on practical reforms.

Main Objectives of the Swadeshi Movement:
✧ Boycott of British-made goods and promotion of indigenous products.
✧ Revival of traditional Indian industries, especially textiles.
✧ Promotion of self-reliance (Swadeshi) and national unity among Indians.
✧ Strengthening education through the establishment of nationalist institutions like Bengal National College.

Significance of the Benaras Session:
✧ Marked the formal acceptance of the Swadeshi agenda by the Indian National Congress.
✧ Strengthened economic nationalism as a tool for political freedom.
✧ Led to the growth of indigenous industries and inspired future leaders like Mahatma Gandhi to adopt Swadeshi principles during the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Legacy:
✧ Laid the foundation for future movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi.
✧ Inspired a sense of self-reliance and national pride among Indians.
✧ Encouraged the development of Indian-owned businesses and industries as a means of economic empowerment.

★ Gopal Krishna Gokhale presided over the 1905 Benaras session of the Indian National Congress, where the Swadeshi Movement was formally adopted.
★ The session emphasized the boycott of British goods and the promotion of indigenous industries as a means to challenge British colonial power.
★ This marked the beginning of economic nationalism in India’s freedom struggle.

➤ Founder: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (also known as Qamar-ud-din Khan)
➤ Year of Foundation: 1724
➤ Capital: Hyderabad (initially Aurangabad, later shifted to Hyderabad)
➤ Title: Nizam of Hyderabad

Key Highlights of the Foundation of Hyderabad State:
✧ Nizam-ul-Mulk was a high-ranking noble and administrator under the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.
✧ In 1724, he defeated Mubariz Khan, the Mughal Governor of Deccan, at the Battle of Shakar Kheda and declared himself the Subedar (governor) of the Deccan.
✧ Though he remained nominally loyal to the Mughal Empire, the state of Hyderabad became practically independent under his rule.

Reasons for Founding Hyderabad:
✧ The weakening authority of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century allowed regional powers to assert independence.
✧ Nizam-ul-Mulk established Hyderabad as a response to the growing instability in Delhi’s central authority.
✧ Sought to create a stable and prosperous state in the Deccan region with strong administrative and military control.

Significance of the Hyderabad State:
✧ One of the most powerful princely states in British India.
✧ Maintained political autonomy under British suzerainty through various treaties with the British East India Company.
✧ Became an important center of trade, culture, and administration in southern India.

Legacy of Nizam-ul-Mulk:
✧ Laid the foundation for the Asaf Jahi Dynasty, which ruled Hyderabad until 1948, when the state was integrated into independent India.
✧ Known for promoting arts, culture, and education in Hyderabad, turning the state into a hub of Deccan culture.
✧ His successors were among the wealthiest rulers in the world during their reign.

★ Nizam-ul-Mulk founded the Hyderabad State in 1724 after defeating the Mughal-appointed governor of the Deccan.
★ The state remained one of the most influential princely states in India until its integration into independent India in 1948.
★ Hyderabad flourished as a center of trade, culture, and administration under the Nizams’ rule.

➤ Introduced by: British East India Company (later continued under British Crown rule)
➤ Known As: “Heaven-born service”
➤ Year Established: 1858 (formalized after the Government of India Act, 1858)

Why It Was Called the ‘Heaven-born Service’:
✧ The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was considered the most prestigious and elite administrative service under British rule.
✧ It was viewed as a career reserved for Britain’s most capable and highly educated individuals, with immense power and influence over colonial administration.
✧ The term “heaven-born” symbolized the high status, prestige, and influence enjoyed by ICS officers, who were considered superior in social and administrative ranks.

Key Features of the Indian Civil Service:
✧ Initially dominated by British officials, with very few Indians allowed to join until the late 19th century.
✧ The examinations for ICS entry were held exclusively in London until 1922, making it difficult for most Indians to qualify.
✧ ICS officers held top administrative positions like District Collectors, Commissioners, and Governors.
✧ Responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting revenue, and implementing government policies across British India.

Indian Participation:
✧ The first Indian to join the ICS was Satyendranath Tagore in 1863.
✧ Over time, more Indians qualified, including prominent leaders like C. Rajagopalachari and Subhas Chandra Bose (who later resigned).

Significance of the ICS:
✧ Served as the backbone of British administration in India.
✧ Played a crucial role in implementing colonial policies and maintaining British control over the Indian subcontinent.
✧ Even after independence, the ICS framework evolved into the modern Indian Administrative Service (IAS) in 1947.

Legacy:
✧ The ICS left a lasting impact on India’s administrative system.
✧ Many of the policies, administrative structures, and governance methods introduced by the ICS are still part of India’s bureaucratic framework today.

★ The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was known as the ‘heaven-born service’ due to its elite status, power, and significant influence during British rule.
★ It was initially dominated by British officials, but Indians gradually began to participate from the late 19th century onward.
★ The ICS laid the foundation for the post-independence Indian Administrative Service (IAS), which continues to function as the top administrative body in India today.

➤ Born: 11 April 1827
➤ Region: Maharashtra, India
➤ Reform Movements: Social reformer, educator, and activist for the rights of women and lower castes

Key Contributions of Jyotirao Phule:
✧ A pioneer in promoting widow remarriage and fighting against caste discrimination in Maharashtra.
✧ Established the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social equality and challenge Brahmanical dominance.
✧ Worked tirelessly to uplift the status of marginalized communities, especially the Dalits and Shudras.

Promotion of Girls’ Education:
✧ Founded the first girls’ school in Poona (Pune) in 1848 with the support of his wife, Savitribai Phule—India’s first female teacher.
✧ Focused on educating lower-caste girls, challenging the orthodox norms of Hindu society that restricted women’s education.
✧ Encouraged his wife to teach girls, even when faced with strong social resistance.

Efforts Toward Widow Remarriage:
✧ Advocated for the rights of widows to remarry, countering deep-seated societal taboos against widow remarriage in 19th-century India.
✧ Openly criticized oppressive practices like child marriage and sati.
✧ Established homes for widows and worked to rehabilitate them in society with dignity and respect.

Other Major Contributions:
✧ Wrote “Gulamgiri” (Slavery) in 1873, which critiqued the caste system and drew parallels with slavery in the West.
✧ Worked for farmers’ rights and fought against the exploitation of peasants by landlords and the colonial administration.

Legacy:
✧ Jyotirao Phule is regarded as a pioneer of social reform in Maharashtra.
✧ Inspired later leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in their struggle for Dalit empowerment and social justice.
✧ His efforts toward women’s education, widow remarriage, and caste equality continue to influence Indian society today.

★ Jyotirao Govindrao Phule was the pioneer of widow remarriages in Maharashtra and, along with his wife Savitribai Phule, started the first girls’ school in Poona in 1848.
★ He championed the rights of marginalized communities, challenged caste oppression, and worked for women’s empowerment.
★ His legacy as a social reformer remains influential in India’s fight for equality and justice.