➤ Battle: First Battle of Tarain
➤ Year: 1191 CE
➤ Opponents:
✧ Prithviraj Chauhan – Ruler of the Chahamana (Chauhan) Dynasty
✧ Muhammad Ghori – Sultan of the Ghurid Empire

Key Events:
✧ The battle took place near Tarain (modern-day Taraori, Haryana).
✧ Prithviraj Chauhan successfully defeated Muhammad Ghori by using effective cavalry strategies.
✧ Muhammad Ghori was wounded and forced to retreat back to Ghazni.

Significance:
✧ Marked a major victory for the Rajput Confederacy against foreign invaders.
✧ Boosted the reputation of Prithviraj Chauhan as a strong defender of Indian territories.
✧ Set the stage for the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE, where Muhammad Ghori eventually defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

★ Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in 1191 CE.
★ The victory temporarily halted Ghurid expansion into northern India.
★ The battle is remembered as a significant event in medieval Indian history for Rajput resistance.

➤ Founded in: 1875
➤ Location: Bombay (now Mumbai)

Objectives of Arya Samaj:
✧ Revive the Vedic way of life and promote the teachings of the Vedas.
✧ Oppose social evils such as caste discrimination, child marriage, idol worship, and untouchability.
✧ Advocate for women’s education, widow remarriage, and social reforms.

Key Principles:
✧ Belief in one God (monotheism).
✧ Promotion of truth, knowledge, and self-discipline.
✧ Encouragement of Swadeshi and nationalistic sentiments to foster self-reliance among Indians.

Contributions:
✧ Established Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools to promote modern education based on Vedic principles.
✧ Influenced the rise of Indian nationalism and the freedom struggle.

★ Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 to revive Vedic values and promote social reforms.
★ The organization played a significant role in India’s socio-religious awakening and educational development.
★ It laid the foundation for modern social reform movements in India.

➤ Chairman: Sir Cyril Radcliffe (a British lawyer)
➤ Year: 1947

Purpose:
✧ To demarcate the boundary between India and the newly created nation of Pakistan following the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
✧ Divide the provinces of Punjab and Bengal based on religious majorities (Hindus and Muslims).

Key Features:
✧ The boundary line drawn by the commission became known as the Radcliffe Line.
✧ The division led to the creation of two provinces:
 ✔ West Punjab – Part of Pakistan
 ✔ East Punjab – Part of India (later became Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh)
✧ Similarly, Bengal was divided into:
 ✔ East Bengal – Became East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
 ✔ West Bengal – Remained in India

Impact:
✧ The partition caused widespread violence, mass migration, and loss of lives on both sides of the new borders.
✧ Led to one of the largest mass migrations in human history, displacing over 10 million people.

★ The Radcliffe Boundary Commission drew the boundary line between India and Pakistan in 1947.
★ Chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, it divided Punjab and Bengal based on religious majorities.
★ The partition led to large-scale violence, displacement, and long-lasting political consequences.

➤ Also Known As: First War of Indian Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny
➤ Start Date: 10 May 1857
➤ Starting Point: Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Key Causes:
✧ Immediate Cause: Introduction of the Enfield rifle, whose cartridges were rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat—offensive to both Hindu and Muslim soldiers (sepoys).
✧ Political Cause: Doctrine of Lapse implemented by Lord Dalhousie, which allowed the British to annex Indian states without a male heir.
✧ Economic Cause: Heavy taxation, destruction of traditional industries, and the displacement of local artisans and farmers.
✧ Social and Religious Cause: Interference in religious practices and the promotion of Western education and Christianity.

Key Leaders:
✧ Mangal Pandey – Sparked the rebellion in Barrackpore.
✧ Rani Lakshmibai – Led resistance in Jhansi.
✧ Bahadur Shah II – Last Mughal Emperor, declared the symbolic leader of the revolt.
✧ Nana Sahib – Led the uprising in Kanpur.
✧ Tantia Tope – Key general who fought alongside Rani Lakshmibai.

Outcome:
✧ The rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British by 1858.
✧ Marked the end of the Mughal Empire and the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown under the Government of India Act 1858.

★ The First War of Indian Independence began in 1857, starting with the mutiny of sepoys in Meerut.
★ It was a significant uprising against British colonial rule, involving political, economic, and social factors.
★ Though unsuccessful, it marked the beginning of organized resistance against British imperialism.

➤ Date of Birth: 2 October 1869
➤ State: Gujarat
➤ Full Name: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Key Facts:
✧ Born in Porbandar, a coastal town in present-day Gujarat.
✧ His father, Karamchand Gandhi, was the Diwan (chief minister) of Porbandar State.
✧ His mother, Putlibai Gandhi, deeply influenced his spiritual and moral development.

Significance of Gandhi Jayanti:
✧ Celebrated every year on 2nd October as a national holiday in India.
✧ Declared as the International Day of Non-Violence by the United Nations.
✧ Recognizes Gandhi’s role in India’s independence struggle and his philosophy of non-violence (Ahimsa) and truth (Satyagraha).

Major Contributions:
✧ Led movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement, Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March), and the Quit India Movement against British colonial rule.
✧ Inspired civil rights movements around the world, influencing leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela.

★ Mahatma Gandhi was born in Porbandar, Gujarat, on 2 October 1869.
★ Gandhi Jayanti is celebrated to honor his contributions to India’s freedom struggle.
★ His principles of non-violence and truth remain influential worldwide.

➤ Founded in: 1828
➤ Location: Calcutta (now Kolkata), West Bengal

Objectives of the Brahmo Samaj:
✧ Promote monotheism and oppose idol worship.
✧ Fight against social evils such as sati, child marriage, and caste discrimination.
✧ Encourage women’s education and support widow remarriage.
✧ Advocate for rational thinking, scientific inquiry, and social reforms based on reason and morality.

Key Contributions:
✧ Played a crucial role in the Abolition of Sati Act of 1829 with the support of Lord William Bentinck.
✧ Worked toward improving educational opportunities by establishing institutions for modern education.
✧ Influenced later reform movements like the Prarthana Samaj and Arya Samaj.

Legacy:
✧ Known as the “Father of the Indian Renaissance” for his contributions to social reforms and modern education in India.
✧ His efforts laid the foundation for India’s social awakening and reformist movements in the 19th century.

★ Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 in Calcutta.
★ The organization aimed to reform Indian society by opposing social evils and promoting rational thought.
★ He is regarded as a pioneer of social reform and the modern Indian renaissance.

➤ Organization: Indian National Army (INA)
➤ Also Known As: Azad Hind Fauj
➤ Founded by: Mohan Singh in 1942 in Singapore
➤ Reorganized and Led by: Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943

Key Contributions of Subhas Chandra Bose:
✧ Revived and reorganized the INA to fight against British colonial rule with the support of Japan during World War II.
✧ Formed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Government) in Singapore in 1943.
✧ Gave the famous slogans:
 ✔ “Jai Hind” – A greeting that became the national slogan of India.
 ✔ “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom.”

Major Campaigns:
✧ Led military campaigns in Manipur, Nagaland, and Burma (Myanmar) against British forces.
✧ Successfully captured Andaman and Nicobar Islands, renaming them Shaheed and Swaraj Islands.

Significance:
✧ Inspired widespread nationalism and weakened the morale of the British colonial administration.
✧ Contributed indirectly to the British decision to leave India due to the fear of armed resistance from Indian forces.

★ Subhas Chandra Bose was an integral part of the Indian National Army (INA).
★ He reorganized the INA to fight for India’s independence with Japanese support.
★ His leadership and slogans continue to inspire Indian nationalism today.

➤ Incident: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
➤ Date: 13 April 1919
➤ Location: Amritsar, Punjab

Key Events:
✧ General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to open fire on an unarmed gathering of men, women, and children.
✧ The crowd had assembled peacefully to protest against the Rowlatt Act and to celebrate the festival of Baisakhi.
✧ British troops blocked all exits and fired around 1,650 rounds of ammunition without any warning.

Casualties:
✧ Official British reports recorded 379 deaths and over 1,200 injured.
✧ Indian estimates suggested that over 1,000 people were killed.

Consequences:
✧ Dyer was dubbed the “Butcher of Amritsar” for his brutal actions.
✧ The massacre fueled widespread anger and led to the rise of the Non-Cooperation Movement under Mahatma Gandhi.
✧ Influenced revolutionaries like Udham Singh, who later assassinated Michael O’Dwyer (the Punjab Governor at the time) in 1940 as revenge for the massacre.

★ Reginald Dyer is remembered as the Butcher of Amritsar for his role in the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
★ His actions intensified India’s struggle for independence and fueled nationalist sentiments.
★ The massacre remains one of the darkest chapters of British colonial rule in India.

➤ Founded: Indian Home Rule League
➤ Year: 1916
➤ Objective: To demand self-governance (Swaraj) for India within the British Empire

Key Contributions:
✧ First woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress in 1917.
✧ Advocated for education reforms and established the Central Hindu College in Varanasi, which later became part of Banaras Hindu University (BHU).
✧ Worked to promote women’s rights and social reforms in India.

Home Rule League Movement:
✧ Inspired by the Irish Home Rule Movement.
✧ Campaigned for Indian self-rule through public meetings, petitions, and newspaper articles.
✧ Worked alongside Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who also launched a similar league from Pune.

Significance:
✧ The movement led to increased political awareness and strengthened the demand for Swaraj.
✧ Set the foundation for future mass movements led by Mahatma Gandhi.

★ Annie Besant founded the Indian Home Rule League in 1916 to promote self-governance for India.
★ She was the first woman to become President of the Indian National Congress.
★ Her efforts greatly contributed to India’s freedom struggle and social reforms.

➤ Passed in: 1919
➤ Official Name: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919
➤ Proposed by: Sir Sidney Rowlatt (British judge)

Key Provisions:
✧ Allowed the British government to arrest and detain individuals without trial for up to two years.
✧ Permitted searches without warrants and imposed strict press censorship.
✧ Aimed to curb revolutionary activities by Indian nationalists.

Opposition Led by Mahatma Gandhi:
✧ Gandhi termed it the “Black Act” as it was a direct attack on civil liberties and democratic rights.
✧ Led to the launch of the Rowlatt Satyagraha in 1919, marking his first major nationwide movement against British rule.
✧ Called for hartals (strikes), peaceful protests, and non-violent resistance.

Consequences:
✧ Sparked widespread protests across India.
✧ Led to the tragic Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar on 13 April 1919.
✧ Intensified the Indian freedom struggle and exposed the repressive nature of British colonial rule.

★ The Rowlatt Act of 1919 was opposed by Mahatma Gandhi as it violated civil liberties and democratic rights.
★ It led to nationwide protests and became a turning point in India’s fight for independence.
★ The Act fueled nationalist sentiments and set the stage for future mass movements against British rule.

➤ Reign: 1296–1316 CE
➤ Dynasty: Khilji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

Key Events:
✧ Malik Kafur, a trusted general of Alauddin Khilji, led the military expeditions into South India between 1308–1311 CE.
✧ These campaigns marked the first major northern invasions into the Deccan and southern peninsular India.

Major Conquests:
✧ Yadava Kingdom – Captured Devagiri (present-day Maharashtra).
✧ Kakatiya Kingdom – Defeated Prataparudra II in Warangal (Telangana).
✧ Hoysala Kingdom – Raided Dwarasamudra (Karnataka).
✧ Pandya Kingdom – Invaded Madurai (Tamil Nadu) and plundered wealth from temples and royal treasuries.

Objectives of the Campaign:
✧ To extract tribute from southern rulers and expand Khilji control over the Indian subcontinent.
✧ Accumulate wealth to strengthen the Delhi Sultanate’s economy and fund military expansions.

Significance:
✧ Extended the influence of the Delhi Sultanate into South India for the first time.
✧ Brought immense wealth to Delhi, contributing to Alauddin Khilji’s economic and military reforms.

★ Alauddin Khilji sent Malik Kafur to lead successful campaigns in South India between 1308 and 1311 CE.
★ These invasions expanded the Delhi Sultanate’s influence and brought immense wealth to northern India.
★ The campaigns marked the beginning of Muslim influence in southern India’s political landscape.

➤ Battle: Battle of Khanwa
➤ Date: 17 March 1527
➤ Location: Near Khanwa, close to Agra, India

Opponents:
✧ Babur – Founder of the Mughal Empire in India
✧ Rana Sanga – Ruler of Mewar and leader of a powerful Rajput confederacy

Background:
✧ After Babur’s victory in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) against Ibrahim Lodi, the Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga sought to challenge Babur’s authority in North India.
✧ The battle was fought to stop the expansion of the Mughal Empire and restore Rajput dominance.

Key Events:
✧ Babur introduced gunpowder artillery and field fortifications in Indian warfare for the first time.
✧ Despite having numerical superiority, Rana Sanga’s forces were defeated due to Babur’s superior military strategy and advanced weaponry.
✧ Babur declared himself a Ghazi (champion of Islam) after the victory, considering it a holy war.

Significance:
✧ Marked the consolidation of Mughal power in North India.
✧ Weakened the Rajput confederacy and diminished the political influence of Rana Sanga.
✧ Established Babur’s dominance and paved the way for the expansion of the Mughal Empire.

★ The Battle of Khanwa was fought between Babur and Rana Sanga in 1527.
★ Babur’s victory established Mughal supremacy in North India.
★ The battle marked the decline of Rajput resistance against the Mughals.

➤ Position: Governor-General of India (1828–1835)
➤ Year of Regulation: 1829
➤ Law Passed: Regulation XVII of 1829

Key Provisions of Regulation XVII:
✧ Officially declared the practice of Sati (the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands) illegal in all jurisdictions under British India.
✧ Made the practice punishable by the courts as an act of culpable homicide.
✧ The law applied to both Hindus and non-Hindus across the territories governed by the British East India Company.

Role of Social Reformers:
✧ Strongly supported by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a social reformer who campaigned vigorously against Sati.
✧ Highlighted the need for reforms to protect women’s rights and promote social justice.

Significance:
✧ Marked a turning point in the British social reform policies in India.
✧ Protected widows from forced or voluntary immolation, ensuring legal support for their survival and remarriage.
✧ Established the British government’s authority to intervene in religious customs for humanitarian purposes.

★ Lord William Bentinck issued Regulation XVII in 1829, officially banning the practice of Sati in British India.
★ The law was supported by social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
★ This was a significant step toward safeguarding women’s rights and ending harmful social practices.

➤ Real Name: Gadadhar Chattopadhyay
➤ Born: 1836 in Kamarpukur, Bengal Presidency

Relationship with Swami Vivekananda:
✧ Ramakrishna Paramhansa was the spiritual guru of Swami Vivekananda (born Narendranath Datta).
✧ Introduced Vivekananda to the idea of universal spirituality and the unity of all religions.
✧ Influenced Vivekananda’s belief in service to humanity as a path to spiritual realization.

Teachings of Ramakrishna:
✧ Emphasized Bhakti (devotion) and the realization of God through love and meditation.
✧ Practiced and respected all religions, including Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.
✧ Taught that all paths ultimately lead to the same divine truth.

Legacy:
✧ His teachings inspired the foundation of the Ramakrishna Mission by Swami Vivekananda in 1897.
✧ Promoted the ideals of spiritual enlightenment, social service, and religious harmony.

★ Ramakrishna Paramhansa was the spiritual guru of Swami Vivekananda.
★ His teachings greatly influenced Vivekananda’s philosophy of universal brotherhood and selfless service.
★ The Ramakrishna Mission continues to carry forward his legacy of spirituality and social reform.

➤ Dynasty: Pala Dynasty
➤ Reign: Late 8th century CE to early 9th century CE

Key Highlights of Vikramshila Vishwavidyalaya:
✧ Founded by Dharmapala to promote higher learning and Buddhist education in India.
✧ Located in present-day Bhagalpur district, Bihar.
✧ Established as a rival to Nalanda University, with a focus on Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana).

Features:
✧ Had six main entrance gates and numerous monastic cells for scholars.
✧ Attracted students and teachers from regions like Tibet, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.
✧ Specialized in subjects like philosophy, grammar, logic, and metaphysics.

Famous Scholars:
✧ Atisha Dipankara, a renowned Buddhist scholar, studied and taught here before traveling to Tibet to spread Buddhist teachings.

Decline:
✧ Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji during the Turko-Muslim invasions in the 12th century, leading to the decline of Buddhist learning in India.

★ Dharmapala, the Pala ruler, founded Vikramshila Vishwavidyalaya in Bihar.
★ It was a renowned center for Buddhist education, especially Vajrayana Buddhism.
★ The university was known for producing great scholars like Atisha Dipankara.

➤ Year of Execution: 1675
➤ Place: Chandni Chowk, Delhi

Reason for Execution:
✧ Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru, opposed Aurangzeb’s religious persecution and the forced conversion of Kashmiri Pandits to Islam.
✧ Refused to convert to Islam despite pressure from the Mughal authorities.
✧ Defended the rights of people to freely practice their religion, regardless of faith.

Events Leading to Execution:
✧ Aurangzeb viewed Guru Tegh Bahadur’s stand as a direct challenge to his authority.
✧ The Guru was arrested and brought to Delhi, where he was asked to embrace Islam or face execution.
✧ Upon his refusal, Aurangzeb ordered his execution by beheading in 1675.

Aftermath:
✧ His martyrdom strengthened the resolve of the Sikh community against religious oppression.
✧ His son, Guru Gobind Singh, later formed the Khalsa in 1699 to resist Mughal tyranny.

★ Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675 for opposing forced conversions.
★ Guru Tegh Bahadur is remembered as a martyr for religious freedom in India.
★ His sacrifice inspired the Sikh community’s fight against Mughal oppression.

➤ Mughal Emperor: Akbar the Great
➤ Reign: 1556–1605 CE

Key Facts About Din-e Ilahi:
✧ Founded by Akbar in 1582 CE as a syncretic religion that blended elements from various religions, including Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.
✧ Aimed to promote religious tolerance and unity among his diverse subjects.
✧ Emphasized ethics, piety, and loyalty to the emperor rather than formal religious rituals.
✧ Membership was exclusive and included close followers like Birbal, one of Akbar’s Navratnas.

✧ Akbar was declared emperor in 1556 CE.
✧ Akbar was illiterate but had a keen intellect and deep interest in learning and various cultures.
✧ Akbar fought and won the Second Battle of Panipat (1556 CE) against Hemu. Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE) was fought between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.

★ Akbar founded the Din-e Ilahi in 1582 CE to promote religious harmony and tolerance.
★ The religion blended elements from various faiths and focused on moral values and loyalty.
★ It remained a small sect with limited followers, but it reflected Akbar’s progressive and inclusive approach to governance.

➤ Founded in: San Francisco, USA
➤ Key Founders:
✧ Sohan Singh Bhakna – First President of the party
✧ Lala Har Dayal – Chief organizer and ideologue
✧ Kanshi Ram and Harnam Singh Tundilat – Prominent leaders and activists

Objectives of the Ghadar Party:
✧ Overthrow British colonial rule in India through an armed revolution.
✧ Unite Indian immigrants, especially Punjabi Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims, living abroad for India’s independence.
✧ Spread revolutionary ideas through the publication of the newspaper “The Ghadar” in multiple languages, including Punjabi, Hindi, and Urdu.

Key Activities:
✧ Organized revolutionary activities among Indian immigrants in North America, Canada, and Southeast Asia.
✧ Attempted to instigate uprisings in India during World War I with support from Germany (known as the Hindu-German Conspiracy).
✧ Encouraged soldiers in the British Indian Army to revolt against colonial authority.

Significance:
✧ Laid the foundation for future revolutionary movements in India.
✧ Inspired many freedom fighters, including Bhagat Singh and members of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
✧ Played a crucial role in strengthening the Indian independence movement abroad.

★ The Ghadar Party was founded in 1913 by leaders like Sohan Singh Bhakna and Lala Har Dayal in San Francisco.
★ It aimed to overthrow British rule in India through armed revolution.
★ The party significantly contributed to India’s revolutionary nationalist movement.

➤ Built by: Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty
➤ Location: Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, India
➤ Period: 8th century CE

Key Features of the Kailasa Temple:
✧ Dedicated to Lord Shiva and represents Mount Kailash, his mythical abode.
✧ Entirely carved out of a single rock, making it one of the largest monolithic rock-cut temples in the world.
✧ Known for its intricate carvings, elaborate sculptures, and impressive architectural design.

Architectural Significance:
✧ Blends elements of Dravidian architecture with unique rock-cut techniques.
✧ Contains sculptures depicting scenes from Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
✧ Features a large Nandi Mandapa (pavilion) facing the main shrine dedicated to Shiva.

Cultural and Historical Importance:
✧ A UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Ellora Caves complex.
✧ Symbolizes the artistic excellence and engineering skills of the Rashtrakutas.
✧ Attracted pilgrims and scholars from across India, making it a significant cultural center of its time.

★ The Kailasa Temple, built by the Rashtrakutas, is located in Ellora, Maharashtra.
★ It is the largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world and dedicated to Lord Shiva.
★ The temple stands as a masterpiece of Indian rock-cut architecture and Rashtrakuta art.

➤ Leaders:
✧ Ali Brothers – Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali
✧ Maulana Abul Kalam Azad – Prominent Islamic scholar and nationalist leader

➤ Period: 1919–1924

Objectives:
✧ Protect the position of the Ottoman Caliph, regarded as the spiritual leader of the global Muslim community.
✧ Protest against the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire by the British and their allies after World War I.
✧ Promote Muslim unity and safeguard Islamic institutions worldwide.

Key Events:
✧ Aligned with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) to unite Hindus and Muslims in the struggle for India’s independence.
✧ Organized mass protests, strikes, and boycotts against British colonial policies.

End of the Movement:
✧ Ended in 1924 when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, abolished the Caliphate.
✧ Despite its end, the movement significantly strengthened Hindu-Muslim unity during India’s freedom struggle.

Significance:
✧ Marked one of the first instances of mass political mobilization of Indian Muslims.
✧ Played a crucial role in bridging the gap between Hindus and Muslims during the independence movement.
✧ Elevated leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to national prominence.

★ The Khilafat Movement was led by the Ali brothers and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to protect the Ottoman Caliphate.
★ It united Indian Muslims and Hindus in a common cause against British colonial rule.
★ The movement played a significant role in India’s early struggle for independence.

➤ Theory: Drain of Wealth Theory
➤ Published Work: “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” (1901)

Key Points of the Drain of Wealth Theory:
✧ Argued that Britain was draining India’s wealth without providing adequate economic returns.
✧ Estimated an annual economic drain of nearly ₹30 crores from India to Britain.
✧ Blamed British economic policies for India’s increasing poverty and underdevelopment.

Main Factors of Economic Drain Identified by Naoroji:
✧ Remittance of salaries paid to British officials working in India.
✧ Profits from Indian resources and industries sent back to Britain.
✧ Heavy expenditure on the British Indian Army for wars not related to India’s interests.
✧ Purchases of British goods using Indian resources, leading to a trade imbalance.

Significance:
✧ Raised national awareness about the economic exploitation under British rule.
✧ Inspired early Indian nationalists to demand economic reforms and greater control over India’s resources.
✧ Dadabhai Naoroji became the first Indian to be elected as a Member of Parliament in the UK House of Commons.

★ Dadabhai Naoroji’s Drain of Wealth theory exposed Britain’s economic exploitation of India.
★ He argued that British policies were impoverishing India by transferring wealth to Britain.
★ His work laid the foundation for India’s economic nationalism and the demand for self-governance.

➤ Built by: Krishna I
➤ Period: 8th century CE
➤ Location: Ellora Caves, near Aurangabad, Maharashtra

Key Features of the Kailasha Temple:
✧ Dedicated to Lord Shiva, representing his mythical abode on Mount Kailash.
✧ Carved entirely out of a single monolithic rock, making it the largest rock-cut temple in the world.
✧ Exhibits a blend of Dravidian architectural style with intricate carvings and sculptures.

Architectural Highlights:
✧ Depictions of stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata adorn the temple walls.
✧ Features a large Nandi Mandapa (pavilion) facing the central shrine.
✧ Remarkable for its precise rock-cutting techniques, considering the limited tools available during the time.

Cultural Significance:
✧ A symbol of the Rashtrakutas’ patronage of art and architecture.
✧ Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and considered a masterpiece of Indian rock-cut architecture.
✧ Attracted pilgrims, scholars, and visitors from across India and neighboring regions.

★ The Kailasha Temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty in the 8th century CE.
★ It stands as a symbol of architectural brilliance and religious devotion.
★ The temple remains one of India’s most iconic monuments, reflecting the Rashtrakutas’ artistic achievements.

➤ Location: Thanjavur (Tanjore), Tamil Nadu
➤ Built in: 1010 CE
➤ Dynasty: Chola Dynasty

Key Features of the Brihadiswara Temple:
✧ Dedicated to Lord Shiva and also known as Peruvudaiyar Kovil or the Big Temple.
✧ Built using granite, despite the lack of nearby quarries, highlighting the architectural expertise of the Cholas.
✧ The temple’s Vimana (tower) stands at a height of 66 meters, making it one of the tallest of its kind in India.

Architectural Highlights:
✧ The temple is an excellent example of Dravidian architecture.
✧ Features a massive monolithic Nandi (bull) sculpture carved from a single stone, weighing around 25 tons.
✧ Walls are decorated with intricate frescoes, sculptures, and inscriptions that detail Raja Raja Chola’s achievements.

Cultural Significance:
✧ Symbolizes the height of Chola architectural excellence and imperial power.
✧ Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Great Living Chola Temples.
✧ The temple was a center for learning, dance, and music during the Chola reign.

★ The Brihadiswara Temple in Thanjavur was built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 CE.
★ It stands as a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture and showcases the Cholas’ artistic and engineering brilliance.
★ The temple remains one of the most iconic monuments of South Indian history and culture.

➤ Reign: 1556–1605 CE
➤ Dynasty: Mughal Empire

Key Facts about the Translations:
✧ Akbar, known for his policy of religious tolerance and cultural inclusiveness, initiated the translation of major Hindu epics into Persian.
✧ The translations aimed to promote understanding between Hindus and Muslims within his empire.

Major Works Translated:
✧ Ramayana – Translated into Persian as “Razmnama” (Book of Wars) by Abdul Qadir Badayuni and other scholars under Akbar’s patronage.
✧ Mahabharata – Also translated as part of “Razmnama” by a group of scholars, including Badayuni, Naqib Khan, and others.

Purpose of Translations:
✧ Foster interfaith harmony and mutual respect among different religious communities.
✧ Introduce Persian-speaking Muslims to Indian culture, values, and mythology.
✧ Serve as a tool for the Mughal court to better understand the diverse beliefs of their subjects.

Significance:
✧ Reflected Akbar’s commitment to religious pluralism and his efforts to create a syncretic culture.
✧ Helped bridge cultural gaps and promoted a more unified Indian identity under Mughal rule.
✧ Encouraged intellectual and artistic exchanges between Hindu and Muslim scholars.

★ Mughal Emperor Akbar initiated the translation of Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata into Persian.
★ The translated works aimed to promote interfaith understanding and cultural unity.
★ These translations are significant examples of Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and cultural integration.

➤ Passed by: British Parliament
➤ Year: 1773

Key Provisions of the Regulating Act, 1773:
✧ Established the office of the Governor-General of Bengal, replacing the earlier position of Governor of Bengal.
✧ Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774.
✧ Created an Executive Council of four members to assist the Governor-General in administration.

Objectives of the Act:
✧ Regulate the functioning of the British East India Company due to its mismanagement and corruption.
✧ Bring the company’s political activities under the control of the British government.
✧ Improve the governance of British territories in India by centralizing authority in Bengal.

Key Features:
✧ Gave the Governor-General greater powers over the Presidencies of Bombay and Madras.
✧ Prohibited company officials from engaging in private trade and accepting bribes.
✧ Established a Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta in 1774 for better administration of justice.

Significance:
✧ Marked the beginning of British parliamentary control over the East India Company’s political affairs.
✧ Laid the foundation for later reforms, including the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
✧ Strengthened the centralization of British authority in India.

★ Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of Bengal after the passing of the Regulating Act, 1773.
★ The Act aimed to regulate the British East India Company’s administration and curb corruption.
★ It laid the groundwork for future British control over Indian governance.