➤ Chennai and Thiruvananthapuram are coastal cities located near the sea, which has a moderating influence on their climate.
➤ This results in small diurnal temperature variation (difference between day and night temperatures).
➤ Landlocked or desert areas like Jaipur, Jaisalmer, and Jammu & Kashmir experience high diurnal temperature variation due to the absence of such moderating effects.
➤ Maritime climate keeps coastal regions warm and humid with uniform temperatures.

★ Chennai & Thiruvananthapuram → Have minimal difference between day and night temperatures.
★ Reason → Due to maritime influence of the nearby sea.
★ In contrast → Inland and desert areas have larger temperature variations.

➤ The Buddh International Circuit (BIC) is situated in Jaypee Sports City, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
➤ It was inaugurated on 18 October 2011 and designed by renowned German racetrack designer Hermann Tilke.
➤ The circuit is named after Gautama Buddha, aligning with the name of the district, Gautam Buddh Nagar, where it is located
➤ BIC hosted the Formula One Indian Grand Prix from 2011 to 2013 and has also been a venue for other international motorsport events.​​

➤ The Index of Eight Core Industries (ICI) is compiled by the Office of the Economic Adviser (OEA) under the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).
➤ The Eight Core Industries are:
 1. Coal
 2. Crude Oil
 3. Natural Gas
 4. Refinery Products
 5. Fertilizers
 6. Steel
 7. Cement
 8. Electricity

➤ These industries are considered “core” because they have a significant impact on the overall industrial performance and the economy.
➤ Jute is not among these eight core industries and thus is not part of the ICI.

★ The Eight Core Industries comprise 40.27% of the weight of items included in the Index of Industrial Production (IIP).

➤ Kachin, Karen, Karenni, Chin, and Mon are prominent ethnic minority groups found in Myanmar (Burma).
➤ These groups are mainly concentrated in different regions of Myanmar and have their own languages, cultures, and traditions.
➤ Some of these ethnic groups, such as the Karen and Kachin, have been involved in long-standing conflicts with the Myanmar government, seeking greater autonomy or independence.
➤ These ethnic communities have a significant influence on the socio-political and cultural landscape of Myanmar.

★ Myanmar → Home to major ethnic groups like Kachin, Karen, Karenni, Chin, Mon.
★ Ethnic conflicts → Common in Myanmar due to demand for autonomy.

➤ Tidal energy is harnessed in coastal areas with high tidal ranges like the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat.
➤ Wind energy is prominent in Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu), one of India’s earliest and most successful wind energy zones.
➤ Geothermal energy is being explored in Puga Valley (Ladakh), known for its hot springs and geothermal activity.

★ Tidal Energy → Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat).
★ Wind Energy → Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu).
★ Geothermal Energy → Puga Valley (Ladakh).

➤ NW-1 (National Waterway-1) runs along the Ganga River from Allahabad to Haldia.
➤ NW-2 covers the stretch of the Brahmaputra River from Sadiya to Dhubri in Assam.
➤ NW-3 lies in Kerala, connecting Kottapuram to Kollam through the West Coast Canal.
➤ NW-5 is located in Odisha, connecting Talcher to Dhamra via Geonkhali and other routes.

➤ The Bist Doab Canal System and the Makhu Canal System are major irrigation canal networks located in the state of Punjab.
➤ The Bist Doab Canal takes off from the Ropar Headworks on the Sutlej River, irrigating the fertile Doaba region between the Beas and Sutlej rivers.
➤ The Makhu Canal System also draws water from the Sutlej and supports agricultural activities in the Ferozepur region.
➤ These canal systems are essential for sustaining Punjab’s agrarian economy.

★ State → Both canal systems are in Punjab.
★ Bist Doab Canal → Originates from Ropar Headworks on Sutlej River.
★ Region irrigated → Between Beas and Sutlej (Doaba region).
★ Importance → Crucial for agriculture and irrigation in Punjab.

➤ Primitive cultivation refers to shifting or slash-and-burn agriculture, practiced by tribal communities in forested or hilly regions.
➤ In Madhya Pradesh, it is called Bewar, where land is cleared by burning vegetation.
➤ In Andhra Pradesh, the tribal term for such farming is Penda.
➤ In Odisha, this traditional practice is known as Bringa.
➤ In Jharkhand, it is referred to as Kuruwa.

★ Bewar → Madhya Pradesh
★ Penda → Andhra Pradesh
★ Bringa → Odisha
★ Kuruwa → Jharkhand

➤ The Indus River is known as ‘Singi Khamban’ in Tibet, which means ‘Lion’s Mouth’ in the Tibetan language.
➤ It originates from the Bokhar Chu glacier near Lake Mansarovar in the Tibetan Plateau.
➤ The river flows through Tibet, India (Ladakh region), and then enters Pakistan, where it forms the backbone of the country’s irrigation system.
➤ The Indus is one of the longest rivers in the world, and the Indus Valley Civilization flourished along its banks.

➤ The Peninsular Plateau of India has a general slope from west to east.
➤ This slope is responsible for most peninsular rivers, like the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, flowing towards the Bay of Bengal.
➤ The Western Ghats are higher in elevation compared to the Eastern Ghats, supporting the west-to-east tilt.
➤ This topography influences the drainage pattern and overall river systems of Southern India.

★ Peninsular Plateau → Slopes from west to east.
★ Western Ghats → Higher than Eastern Ghats.
★ Rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal.

➤ Rupnarainpur is located in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal.
➤ It is home to a Hindustan Cables Limited (HCL) unit, which was involved in manufacturing telecommunication cables, including jelly-filled cables and optical fiber cables.
➤ HCL is a public sector enterprise under the Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, Government of India.
➤ The unit at Rupnarainpur played a major role in India’s telecom infrastructure development in earlier decades.

➤ Madhya Pradesh has the maximum number of National Parks in India (11 parks), including famous ones like Kanha, Bandhavgarh, and Pench.
➤ Mudumalai National Park is located in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu, not Kerala.
➤ The Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) is located at Anaikatty, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.

➤ The concept of Virtual Water was introduced by John Anthony Allan, a British geographer from King’s College London.
➤ Virtual water refers to the hidden flow of water when food or other commodities are traded — for example, the water used to grow wheat that is exported.
➤ This concept helps in understanding global water use and managing water scarcity by considering the indirect water used in production and trade.
➤ It is especially relevant in water-scarce countries that import food instead of using limited water resources for agriculture.

★ John Anthony Allan → Introduced the virtual water concept.
★ Virtual Water → Water embedded in traded goods like grains, meat, or textiles.
★ Significance → Helps in addressing global water scarcity and trade-based water management.

➤ The Lushai Hills are located in the state of Mizoram and are also popularly known as the Mizo Hills.
➤ These hills are part of the Purvanchal Range, which includes several hill ranges running through the northeastern states of India.
➤ The terrain is hilly and rugged, and the region is inhabited predominantly by the Mizo tribal community.
➤ The Lushai (Mizo) Hills are known for their rich biodiversity, dense forests, and moderate climate.

★ Lushai Hills = Mizo Hills, located in Mizoram.
★ Part of the Purvanchal mountain system in northeast India.
★ Inhabited by the Mizo tribe; region rich in biodiversity.

➤ The Somasila Dam is constructed across the Pennar River in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh.
➤ It is one of the major irrigation projects in the region, serving agriculture and providing drinking water.
➤ The dam plays a crucial role in storing floodwater during the monsoon and regulating water supply during dry seasons.
➤ The Pennar River originates in Karnataka and flows through Andhra Pradesh, finally draining into the Bay of Bengal.

➤ Air transport in India was nationalised in 1953 under the Air Corporations Act, 1953.
➤ The Government of India merged eight private airlines into two government-owned corporations:
  • Indian Airlines – for domestic and regional routes
  • Air India International – for international routes
➤ This step was taken to ensure better regulation, efficiency, and safety in Indian aviation.
➤ In 2007, Indian Airlines and Air India were later merged into a single entity under the name Air India.

★ Air transport nationalised in 1953 via Air Corporations Act.
★ Indian Airlines (domestic) and Air India International (international) were created.
★ Purpose → Regulate and unify civil aviation in India.

➤ The Mundra Thermal Power Plant is situated in the Kutch district of Gujarat, near the Mundra Port on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
➤ It is operated by Adani Power Limited and is one of the largest coal-based private sector thermal power plants in India.
➤ The plant has a generation capacity of around 4,620 MW, supplying electricity to several states.
➤ Its coastal location allows easy import of coal via Mundra Port, making it strategically important for energy production.

★ Mundra Power Plant → Located in Kutch district, Gujarat.
★ Operated by → Adani Power Limited.
★ Type → Coal-based thermal power plant.
★ Capacity → Approx. 4,620 MW.

➤ The Howrah Bridge was officially opened to the public in 1943, during British rule in India.
➤ It is a cantilever bridge constructed over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, connecting Howrah and Kolkata.
➤ The bridge was renamed as Rabindra Setu in 1965, in honor of Rabindranath Tagore, but it is still commonly known as Howrah Bridge.
➤ It is one of the busiest bridges in the world, carrying thousands of vehicles and pedestrians daily.

➤ Bhadla Solar Park is located in Bhadla village, Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India.​
➤ It is the largest solar power plant in the world as of March 2020, with a total installed capacity of 2,245 MW.
➤ The park spans over 14,000 acres in the Thar Desert, taking advantage of the region’s high solar insolation and arid climate.​
➤ Developed in multiple phases by various developers, it significantly contributes to India’s renewable energy capacity.​

➤ Ceres is the closest dwarf planet to the Sun, located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
➤ It orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 2.77 AU (Astronomical Units), which is approximately 2.8 times Earth’s distance from the Sun.
➤ Ceres was the first dwarf planet to be visited by a spacecraft — NASA’s Dawn Mission in 2015.
➤ It is also the only dwarf planet located in the inner solar system, while others like Pluto, Eris, and Makemake are in the Kuiper Belt.

➤ Tatipaka Refinery is located in Tatipaka village, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Konaseema district, Andhra Pradesh.
➤ Bina Refinery is situated in Bina, Madhya Pradesh. ​
➤ Koyali Refinery is located in Vadodara, Gujarat.
➤ Numaligarh Refinery is in Numaligarh, Assam.

➤ Cygnus, also known as the Northern Cross, is a prominent constellation in the northern sky, best visible during late summer and early fall, especially in September.
➤ It is shaped like a cross, representing a swan in flight, with its brightest star Deneb forming the tail.
➤ Cygnus lies along the Milky Way and is rich in stars and deep-sky objects, making it popular among stargazers.
➤ Other options like Pegasus, Ursa Major, and Cassiopeia are also northern constellations but do not have the cross-like pattern distinctive to Cygnus.

➤ The Delhi Ridge is a northern extension of the Aravalli Range, acting as a water divide between the Ganges and Indus river systems.
➤ It influences the drainage pattern in the Delhi region by separating streams flowing eastward into the Ganges basin from those flowing westward into the Indus basin.
➤ The ridge also plays a vital role in groundwater recharge, climate moderation, and ecological balance in Delhi.
➤ It is often referred to as the “green lung” of Delhi due to its forest cover and environmental significance.

➤ The Western Coastal Plains of India are divided into three sections:
 • Konkan Coast (north) – Maharashtra & Goa
 • Kannad Plains (central) – Karnataka
 • Malabar Coast (south) – Kerala

➤ The central stretch, lying between Goa and Mangalore, is known as the Kannad Plains.
➤ This region is narrow, located between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, and supports coconut and rice cultivation.
➤ These plains also feature estuaries and backwaters, aiding inland navigation.

★ Kannad Plains → Central stretch of Western Coastal Plains, in Karnataka.
★ Konkan Coast → Northern part (Maharashtra & Goa).
★ Malabar Coast → Southern part (Kerala).
★ Coromandel Coast → Not part of western coast, it lies on the eastern coast.

➤ In Köppen’s climate classification, Group E refers to Polar climates, which are extremely cold throughout the year.
➤ The defining characteristic of Group E is that the average temperature of all months remains below 10°C, making it unsuitable for tree growth.
➤ Group E is further divided into:
 • ET (Tundra Climate) – Warmest month between 0°C and 10°C
 • EF (Ice Cap Climate) – All months below 0°C
➤ These climates are found in polar regions like Antarctica, Greenland, and Arctic parts of Canada and Russia.

★ Group E (Polar Climates) → All months have average temp. below 10°C.
★ ET (Tundra) and EF (Ice Cap) are subtypes of Group E.
★ No tree growth → Vegetation limited to mosses, lichens.

➤ The Milankovitch theory explains how cyclical changes in Earth’s movements—such as eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession—affect the Earth’s climate over thousands of years.
➤ These changes alter the distribution and intensity of sunlight received by Earth, leading to long-term climate variations, including ice ages and interglacial periods.
➤ The theory was proposed by Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch in the early 20th century.
➤ It is widely accepted as a scientific explanation for natural climate change over geological timescales.

★ Milankovitch Theory → Explains long-term climate changes due to Earth’s orbital variations.
★ Key components → Eccentricity, axial tilt, precession.
★ Effect → Causes ice ages and interglacial periods.
★ Proposed by → Milutin Milankovitch, Serbian mathematician.