➤ Most Indian rivers flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal, but Narmada and Tapi are exceptions as they flow westward into the Arabian Sea.
➤ Both originate in central India and form estuaries instead of deltas.

★ Narmada originates from Amarkantak Plateau, and Tapi from Satpura ranges.
★ These are among the few west-flowing rivers in India.

➤ Slash and burn (also known as jhum cultivation) is a primitive method of farming practiced in tribal areas.
➤ Commercial farming uses modern inputs like chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and HYV seeds.

★ Commercial farming involves large-scale production and market-oriented farming.
★ Slash and burn is a feature of primitive subsistence farming, not commercial farming.

➤ The Maldives lie in the southwest of India, below Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.
➤ Lakshadweep is India’s smallest Union Territory located closer to the coast of Kerala.

★ It lies in the Indian Ocean and is a key maritime neighbor.

➤ Maasai is a tribe found in East Africa, especially in Kenya and Tanzania.
➤ Tharu, Gond, and Santhal are major tribes in different parts of India.

★ Tharu (Uttarakhand), Gond (MP/Chhattisgarh), and Santhal (Jharkhand) are Indian tribes.

➤ The Gir Forest in Gujarat is the only natural habitat of the Asiatic Lion in the world.
➤ It is a protected sanctuary and national park.

★ Gir National Park is the only place in the world where Asiatic Lions are found in the wild.
★ Located in Saurashtra region, Gujarat.

➤ Mormugao Port is located in the state of Goa and is a major iron ore exporting port.
➤ Paradip Port is situated in Odisha and is one of the major ports on the eastern coast of India.
➤ Haldia Port is an extension of Kolkata Port and is located in West Bengal.
➤ Tuticorin Port (also called V.O. Chidambaranar Port) is in Tamil Nadu, mainly used for trade with Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

★ Mormugao (Goa), Paradip (Odisha), Haldia (West Bengal), and Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) are all major ports linked to maritime trade.

➤ These coastal areas experience high tidal range and strong tidal currents.
➤ Tidal energy is generated by the rise and fall of tides, which is influenced by the gravitational pull of the moon.
➤ The Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch are known for their high tidal amplitudes, making them suitable for tidal power projects.

★ India has identified the Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch as potential sites for tidal energy.
★ Tidal energy is a non-polluting and renewable source of energy.

➤ Alluvial soil is the most widespread soil in India, covering around 40% of the total land area.
➤ It is formed by the deposition of sediments by rivers and streams.
➤ This soil is fertile, rich in potash and lime, and suitable for the cultivation of crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane, and pulses.

★ Alluvial soil is mainly found in the Indo-Gangetic plain, covering states like Punjab, UP, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
★ It is divided into Khadar (new) and Bangar (old) types.

➤ Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon located along the eastern coast of Odisha.
➤ It lies to the south of the Mahanadi River delta.
➤ Chilika is Asia’s largest coastal lagoon and a hotspot for migratory birds and biodiversity.

★ Chilika Lake is listed under the Ramsar Convention for wetlands.
★ It is famous for Irrawaddy dolphins and supports a large fishing industry.

➤ Gir Forest in Gujarat is the only natural habitat of the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) in the world.
➤ It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1965 and later a national park in 1975.
➤ The forest provides dry deciduous and scrub-type vegetation, ideal for lions.

★ Gir National Park is the only place in Asia where lions are found in the wild.
★ The Asiatic Lion is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

➤ The Peninsular Plateau of India is one of the oldest landmasses, formed during the Gondwana period.
➤ It was once a part of the Gondwanaland, which included parts of Africa, South America, Antarctica, and India.
➤ During the continental drift, the Indian plate separated from Africa and moved northward.

★ The Gondwana landmass theory is crucial in understanding the geological history of India.
★ This is a key concept in Geography and General Science for SSC and UPSC exams.
★ The plateau is rich in minerals and forms the Deccan and Central Highlands.

➤ The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular-shaped landmass covering most of peninsular India.
➤ It is bounded by the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and the Satpura range.
➤ It lies south of the Narmada River, extending up to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula.

★ The Deccan Plateau is made of igneous rocks and is rich in minerals.
★ It includes Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and parts of Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.

➤ Western disturbances are extratropical storms originating from the Mediterranean region.
➤ They bring moderate to heavy rainfall and snowfall to north-western India, especially Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and western UP during winters.
➤ These are important for Rabi crops, especially wheat.

★ Western disturbances occur mainly during December to February.
★ They influence winter rainfall and sometimes cause cold waves.
★ Crucial for Indian climate and agriculture questions in exams.

➤ Tropical Deciduous Forests are also called Monsoon Forests, found in regions receiving 75–200 cm of rainfall.
➤ Teak is the most dominant and valuable species in these forests.
➤ These forests shed leaves during dry seasons to conserve water.

★ Tropical deciduous forests are found in MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Maharashtra, etc.
★ Other important species: Sal, Sheesham, Sandalwood, and Arjun.

➤ Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh are two of the most mineral-rich states in India.
➤ They have some of the largest coal reserves in the country, especially in areas like Dhanbad (Jharkhand) and Korba (Chhattisgarh).
➤ These states contribute significantly to India’s total coal production used for electricity generation and industries.
➤ Apart from coal, these states also have deposits of iron ore, bauxite, and limestone, but coal is the most dominant.

★ Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh together hold a major share of India’s coal reserves.
★ Important coal fields include Jharia, Bokaro (Jharkhand) and Korba, Hasdeo (Chhattisgarh).
★ India ranks 5th in coal reserves globally, and these states are key contributors.

➤ The Green Revolution in India began in the 1960s, led by scientists like M.S. Swaminathan.
➤ It focused on high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds, especially for wheat and rice.
➤ Wheat saw the maximum productivity boost, particularly in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP.
➤ Improved irrigation, fertilizers, and modern farming methods contributed to the success of wheat cultivation.

★ Wheat was the biggest beneficiary of the Green Revolution in India.
★ It turned India from a food-deficient country to a self-sufficient one in food grain production.
★ The revolution began with the Kharif season of 1966–67.

➤ Sri Lanka has two official languages: Sinhala and Tamil. Tamil is recognized due to its large Tamil-speaking population in the north and east.
➤ China‘s official language is Mandarin, also called Putonghua.
➤ Myanmar (Burma)‘s official language is Burmese, used in administration and education.
➤ Bhutan‘s national language is Dzongkha, used in official communication and education.

★ Tamil is one of the official languages of Sri Lanka.
★ Mandarin is the official language of China.
★ Burmese is the official language of Myanmar.
★ Dzongkha is the national and official language of Bhutan.

➤ The Kosi River originates in Nepal and enters India through Bihar.
➤ It is called the “Sorrow of Bihar” because of its frequent and devastating floods, which have caused massive destruction to life, agriculture, and infrastructure over the decades.
➤ The river changes its course frequently due to heavy silt and sediment deposition, making it unpredictable.
➤ Major flood disasters in north Bihar, especially in the Kosi belt, have earned it this tragic title.

★ Kosi River is famously called the “Sorrow of Bihar” due to its destructive floods.
★ It is a tributary of the Ganga River.
★ The river originates from Tibet via Nepal before entering Bihar.

➤ The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve is located in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
➤ It includes the Nanda Devi National Park and the Valley of Flowers National Park, both of which are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
➤ It is located in the Garhwal Himalayas, around 7,817 meters above sea level near the Nanda Devi peak.
➤ This biosphere reserve is rich in biodiversity, home to rare species like snow leopards, Himalayan musk deer, and various alpine flora.

★ Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve is located in Uttarakhand, India.
★ It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a part of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot.
★ It was established in 1988 and is among the important ecological zones in India.

➤ Blue Revolution refers to the rapid increase in fish production through aquaculture and marine development.
➤ Yellow Revolution is associated with the increase in oilseeds production, especially mustard and sunflower.
➤ Round Revolution is linked to the increased production of potatoes in India.
➤ Golden Revolution refers to the growth of horticulture, including fruits, honey, and flowers.

★ Blue Revolution = Fish Production
★ Yellow Revolution = Oilseeds Production
★ Round Revolution = Potato Production
★ Golden Revolution = Horticulture Development (Fruits & Honey)

➤ The Standard Meridian of India is 82°30ʹ East longitude, which passes through Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.
➤ It is used as the basis for Indian Standard Time (IST) across the country.
➤ This meridian was selected because it lies roughly in the middle of India’s east-west extent, helping maintain uniform time.

★ Indian Standard Time (IST) is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT (UTC+5:30).
★ IST does not change with seasons; India follows the same time zone throughout the year.
★ The Standard Meridian helps avoid confusion in timekeeping across a wide country like India.
★ Countries like the USA use multiple time zones, but India follows only one time zone (IST).

➤ Goa is home to the Mormugao Port, which is one of the oldest ports in India and known for iron ore exports.
➤ West Bengal has the Haldia Port, a major riverine port situated along the Hooghly River.
➤ Tamil Nadu houses the Tuticorin Port (also known as V.O. Chidambaranar Port), handling cargo and containers.
➤ Gujarat has the Kandla Port (now Deendayal Port), a key hub for crude oil and petroleum products.

★ India has 13 major ports and 200+ non-major ports.
★ Ports are crucial for international trade and coastal shipping.

➤ The Southwest Monsoon first hits the Indian mainland at the coastal state of Kerala.
➤ It usually arrives in Kerala around June 1st every year, marking the onset of the rainy season in India.
➤ After Kerala, the monsoon progresses northward, reaching other parts of India over the following weeks.

★ Kerala is the first state in India to receive rainfall from the Southwest Monsoon.
★ The India Meteorological Department (IMD) officially declares monsoon onset based on specific weather criteria in Kerala.
★ The monsoon is vital for agriculture, as a large part of Indian farming depends on it.

➤ Public sector industries are owned and operated by the government. Example: Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL).
➤ Private sector industries are owned and managed by individuals or private companies. Example: Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO).
➤ Joint sector industries are operated jointly by the government and private sector, like Oil India Ltd.

★ BHEL is a public sector enterprise under the Government of India.
★ TISCO is a major private sector steel manufacturing company.
★ Oil India Ltd is a joint venture, involving both government and private participation.

➤ The Shiwalik range lies at the foothills of the Himalayas, also called the outer Himalayas.
➤ It is made up of unconsolidated sediments brought by rivers from the higher Himalayas.
➤ These hills are geologically the youngest part of the Himalayan ranges and are prone to landslides and erosion.

★ The Shiwalik range extends from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
★ It lies south of the Himachal range and is the lowest in elevation among the Himalayan ranges.