➤ The Industrial Policy of 1991 marked the beginning of liberalization in India, reducing government control over industries and encouraging private sector participation.
➤ This policy introduced economic reforms under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh to tackle the economic crisis of 1991.
➤ Key features of the 1991 Industrial Policy:
➔ Abolition of Industrial Licensing → Most industries were freed from licensing requirements.
➔ Privatization → Public sector monopoly was reduced, and private companies were encouraged.
➔ Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) → Allowed in various sectors to boost economic growth.
➔ Globalization → Indian markets were opened to international competition.
➔ De-reservation of Sectors → Many industries that were earlier reserved for the public sector were opened to private players.

★ Industrial Policy 1991 → Started India’s economic liberalization.
★ Key Leaders → P.V. Narasimha Rao (PM) & Dr. Manmohan Singh (FM).
★ Main Reforms → Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG).
★ FDI Introduced → Allowed foreign investments.
★ Reduced Government Control → Boosted the private sector & competition.

➤ Article 24 of the Indian Constitution prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in factories, mines, or any other hazardous work.
➤ This is a Fundamental Right under Part III of the Constitution, ensuring the protection of children from exploitation.
➤ The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 and its amendment in 2016 further restricts child labor and regulates working conditions.
➤ Any violation of this law is a punishable offense, with penalties for employers hiring children for hazardous work.

★ Article 24 → Prohibits child labor in factories, mines, and hazardous industries.
★ Minimum working age → Below 14 years cannot work in hazardous industries.
★ Child Labour Act, 1986 & Amendment 2016 → Strengthened child labor laws.
★ Punishable Offense → Employers violating the law face legal action.
★ Aim → Protection of children from exploitation and hazardous labor.

➤ Article 63 of the Indian Constitution states that “There shall be a Vice President of India.”
➤ The Vice President is the second-highest constitutional authority in India after the President.
➤ The Vice President also serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
➤ The election of the Vice President is conducted under Article 66, through an Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament.
➤ In case of a vacancy in the office of the President, the Vice President acts as the President under Article 65.

★ Article 63 → States that India shall have a Vice President.
★ Vice President’s Role → Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
★ Article 66 → Deals with the election of the Vice President.
★ Article 65 → Vice President acts as President in case of vacancy.
★ Elected by → Members of both Houses of Parliament.

➤ Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) are mentioned in Part IV (Articles 36-51) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ They are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts if violated (Option B is incorrect).
➤ DPSPs provide guidelines for the governance of the country, ensuring social and economic justice.
➤ Though they are not legally binding, they are morally binding on the government to implement policies for the welfare of the people.
➤ DPSPs are inspired by the Irish Constitution and aim to establish a welfare state.

★ Part IV (Articles 36-51) → Deals with DPSPs.
★ Non-justiciable → Cannot be enforced by courts.
★ Ensures → Social & economic justice for citizens.
★ Morally binding → Guides government policies.
★ Inspired by → Irish Constitution.

➤ Article 48-A of the Indian Constitution directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
➤ It was added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 under the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
➤ This Article emphasizes the responsibility of the government to take measures for environmental conservation.
➤ Additionally, Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty) makes it a duty of citizens to protect and improve the natural environment.
➤ Various environmental laws, such as the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and the Environment Protection Act, 1986, are based on this principle.

★ Article 48-A → Protect and improve the environment, forests, and wildlife.
★ Added by → 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
★ Part of → Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
★ Linked to → Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty on environmental protection).
★ Supports → Laws like Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Environment Protection Act, 1986.

➤ Articles 245 to 255 in Part XI of the Indian Constitution deal with the legislative relations between the Centre and the States.
➤ These articles define the law-making powers of the Union and State legislatures.
➤ The distribution of legislative powers is based on three lists under the Seventh Schedule:
➔ Union List → Parliament has exclusive power to make laws (e.g., defense, foreign affairs).
➔ State List → State legislatures have authority (e.g., police, public health).
➔ Concurrent List → Both Parliament and State Legislatures can make laws (e.g., education, marriage).
➤ Article 246 explains the power of Parliament and State Legislatures to make laws on these subjects.

★ Part XI (Articles 245-255) → Deals with Centre-State legislative relations.
★ Seventh Schedule → Divides subjects into Union, State, and Concurrent Lists.
★ Article 245 → Extent of laws made by Parliament and States.
★ Article 246 → Distribution of legislative powers between Centre and States.
★ Ensures → Clear division of law-making authority to avoid conflicts.

➤ Article 28 of the Indian Constitution prohibits religious instruction in educational institutions maintained by the State.
➤ It ensures that government-funded schools remain secular and do not promote any particular religion.
➤ Exceptions under Article 28:
➔ Institutions administered by the State but established under an endowment or trust (which requires religious instruction) are allowed to provide religious teachings.
➔ Private and minority institutions are not restricted by this provision.
➤ This Article upholds the secular character of India as per the Preamble.

★ Article 28 → Prohibits religious instruction in State-funded educational institutions.
★ Ensures → Secularism in government-run schools.
★ Exception → Religious instruction is allowed in trust-based institutions.
★ Does not apply to → Private or minority institutions.
★ Supports → India’s secular foundation as per the Preamble.

➤ Article 124(2) of the Indian Constitution grants power to the President of India to appoint Judges of the Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
➤ The President appoints Supreme Court judges after consulting the Chief Justice of India and other senior judges as per the Collegium System.
➤ A Supreme Court judge:
➔ Holds office until the age of 65 years.
➔ Can be removed only through impeachment under Article 124(4).
➤ The Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act, 2019, increased the strength of SC judges to 34 (1 CJI + 33 judges).

★ Article 124(2) → President appoints Supreme Court judges.
★ Collegium System → CJI + senior SC judges recommend appointments.
★ Retirement Age → 65 years.
★ Removal under Article 124(4) → Through impeachment.
★ Current strength → 34 judges (as per the 2019 amendment).

➤ The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 empowers the Central Government to establish authorities for preventing, controlling, and reducing environmental pollution in all its forms.
➤ This Act was passed in response to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) and serves as an umbrella legislation for environmental protection.
➤ Under this Act, the Central Government can:
➔ Set environmental standards for air, water, and soil quality.
➔ Regulate industries and hazardous substances.
➔ Establish agencies like the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
➔ Impose penalties for environmental violations.

★ Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 → Empowers the Central Government.
★ Enacted after → Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984).
★ Regulates → Pollution control, hazardous substances, and industry compliance.
★ Key authority → Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
★ Objective → Comprehensive environmental protection at the national level.

➤ The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) holds office for 6 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
➤ The CEC is appointed by the President of India under Article 324 of the Constitution.
➤ The Election Commission of India (ECI) consists of:
➔ Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)
➔ Two Election Commissioners (since 1993)
➤ The CEC can be removed in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge, ensuring independence from political influence.

★ Tenure → 6 years or up to 65 years, whichever is earlier.
★ Article 324 → Establishes the Election Commission of India (ECI).
★ Appointed by → President of India.
★ Removal process → Same as Supreme Court judges (impeachment-like process).
★ Ensures → Free and fair elections in India.

➤ The Government of India Act, 1935 introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ by abolishing dyarchy in the provinces.
➤ Under this Act, provinces were granted autonomous powers, and the elected Indian ministers were given full control over provincial subjects.
➤ However, the Governor retained special discretionary powers, allowing British control over key areas like law and order.
➤ The Act also introduced:
➔ Federal system (never implemented)
➔ Bicameralism in six provinces
➔ A federal court

★ Government of India Act, 1935 → Introduced provincial autonomy.
★ Abolished Dyarchy → Elected Indian ministers gained control.
★ Governor retained discretionary powers → British still had influence.
★ Introduced → Federal structure, bicameralism in some provinces.
★ Most provisions served as a basis → For India’s Constitution in 1950.

➤ Article 77 of the Indian Constitution deals with the “Conduct of Business of the Government of India.”
➤ It lays down the rules for the manner in which the executive actions of the Government of India are carried out.
➤ Key provisions under Article 77:
➔ All executive actions of the Government of India shall be expressed in the name of the President.
➔ The President shall make rules for the allocation of business among the Ministers.
➔ Orders and instruments made in the President’s name shall be authenticated as per prescribed rules.

★ Article 77 → Deals with the Conduct of Business of the Government of India.
★ Executive actions → Must be taken in the name of the President.
★ Rules for business allocation → Decided by the President.
★ Ensures → Proper functioning of the executive branch.

➤ Article 51A(k) of the Indian Constitution states that it is the fundamental duty of parents or guardians to provide opportunities for education to their children between the ages of 6 and 14 years.
➤ This duty was added by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, which also made education a Fundamental Right under Article 21A.
➤ If a construction worker takes his 8-year-old child to work instead of sending him to school, it violates both Article 51A(k) (Fundamental Duty) and Article 21A (Right to Education).
➤ The Right to Education Act, 2009 ensures free and compulsory education for children in this age group.

★ Article 51A(k) → Parents must provide education to children (6-14 years).
★ Added by → 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.
★ Linked to → Article 21A (Right to Education).
★ Violation → Taking a child to work instead of school violates this duty.
★ Supported by → Right to Education Act, 2009 (free education for children).

➤ Article 43 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to promote cottage industries on an individual or cooperative basis in rural areas.
➤ It is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) under Part IV of the Constitution.
➤ The goal is to encourage self-employment, rural development, and economic growth by supporting traditional and small-scale industries.
➤ The government has implemented schemes like:
➔ Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) – Provides employment in rural areas.
➔ Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) – Supports small-scale industries.
➔ Start-up India & Mudra Yojana – Provides financial aid to small entrepreneurs.

★ Article 43 → Promotes cottage industries in rural areas.
★ Part of → Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
★ Encourages → Self-employment & rural economic development.
★ Supported by → MGNREGA, KVIC, Start-up India, Mudra Yojana.
★ Objective → Strengthening rural industries & cooperative enterprises.

➤ Article 46 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to promote the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other weaker sections of society.
➤ It is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) under Part IV of the Constitution.
➤ The objective is to reduce social and economic inequalities by ensuring special protection and opportunities for marginalized communities.
➤ Various government initiatives based on this article include:
➔ Reservation in education and jobs for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
➔ Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme for SC/ST students.
➔ Scheduled Tribes Development Schemes for economic upliftment.
➔ Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) for tribal students.

★ Article 46 → Promotes education & economic upliftment of SCs, STs & weaker sections.
★ Part of → Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
★ Objective → Reduce social & economic inequalities.
★ Supports → Reservation policies, scholarships, and welfare schemes.
★ Key schemes → Post-Matric Scholarships, EMRS, Tribal Development Schemes.

➤ Article 57 of the Indian Constitution states that the President of India is eligible for re-election.
➤ This means that there is no limit on the number of terms a person can serve as President.
➤ A President can contest multiple times as long as they meet the eligibility criteria under Article 58.
➤ So far, Dr. Rajendra Prasad is the only President of India who has served two consecutive terms (1950-1962).

★ Article 57 → Allows re-election of the President.
★ No term limit → A President can serve multiple terms.
★ Article 58 → Defines the eligibility criteria for the President.
★ Dr. Rajendra Prasad → Only President to serve two terms.
★ Election process governed by → Article 54 & Article 55.

➤ The concept of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) originated in the USA in the 1960s, where it was used to address civil rights and public welfare issues.
➤ In India, PIL was introduced in the late 1970s and 1980s by the Supreme Court to provide access to justice for marginalized sections of society.
➤ Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer were key figures in developing PIL in India.
➤ PIL allows any person or organization to file a case in the interest of the public, even if they are not directly affected by the issue.

★ Origin of PIL → USA (1960s) for civil rights and social justice.
★ Introduced in India → Late 1970s-1980s by the Supreme Court.
★ Key Judges → Justice P.N. Bhagwati & Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer.
★ Objective → Provide justice to weaker sections of society.
★ Allows → Anyone to file a case in the public interest.

➤ The Republic feature of the Indian Constitution has been borrowed from the French Constitution.
➤ A Republic means that the head of state (President) is elected and not a hereditary ruler (like a king or queen).
➤ In India, the President is elected for a fixed term of 5 years under Article 52 and Article 54.
➤ Unlike the British Constitution, where the monarchy exists, India follows a Republican system where the people have the power to elect their leader.

★ Republic Feature → Borrowed from the French Constitution.
★ Meaning → The head of state (President) is elected, not hereditary.
★ Articles 52 & 54 → Provide for an elected President in India.
★ British System vs. Indian System → UK has a monarchy, India is a Republic.
★ Fixed Term → The President serves for 5 years.

➤ The Indian High Courts Act was introduced by the British Parliament in 1861.
➤ It led to the establishment of High Courts in India, replacing the earlier Supreme Courts and Sadar Adalats.
➤ The first three High Courts were set up in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862.
➤ The Act aimed to streamline the judiciary and bring uniformity in the legal system under British rule.

★ Indian High Courts Act, 1861 → Introduced by the British Parliament.
★ Purpose → Replace Supreme Courts & Sadar Adalats with High Courts.
★ First High Courts → Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1862).
★ Established a unified judiciary → Bringing consistency in the legal system.
★ Significance → Laid the foundation for the modern High Court system in India.

➤ Full-day discussion is NOT a recognized device of parliamentary proceedings in India.
➤ The Indian Parliament has several mechanisms for discussions and raising matters of public importance, including:
➔ Half-an-hour discussion → Allows members to seek further clarification on matters already discussed.
➔ Zero Hour → Unscheduled time immediately after Question Hour where urgent matters are raised.
➔ Two-hour (short) discussion → Discusses important matters without formal voting.
➤ However, there is no formal provision for a “Full-day discussion” as a parliamentary device.

★ Full-day discussion → Not a recognized parliamentary device.
★ Half-an-hour discussion → For clarifications on previous discussions.
★ Zero Hour → Raises urgent matters after Question Hour.
★ Short discussion (Two-hour discussion) → No formal motion or voting required.
★ Parliamentary rules → Governed by the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha.

➤ In the 1945 British general elections, the Labour Party won and formed the government.
➤ Clement Attlee became the Prime Minister, defeating Winston Churchill’s Conservative Party.
➤ The Labour Party focused on welfare reforms, including the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) and nationalization of key industries.
➤ The 1945 election was significant as it marked the shift from wartime leadership (Churchill) to post-war reconstruction under Attlee.

★ 1945 British Elections → Won by the Labour Party.
★ Prime Minister → Clement Attlee.
★ Defeated Party → Conservative Party (Winston Churchill).
★ Major Reforms → Established NHS, nationalized key industries.
★ Significance → Shift from wartime leadership to post-war rebuilding.

➤ Article 51A(a) of the Indian Constitution states that it is the fundamental duty of every citizen to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals, institutions, the National Flag, and the National Anthem.
➤ Using the Indian Flag as a covering for a desk is a disrespectful act and violates the Flag Code of India, 2002.
➤ The Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971, also prohibits the misuse or disrespect of the National Flag.
➤ Citizens must ensure that the National Flag is treated with dignity and respect at all times.

★ Article 51A(a) → Duty to respect the National Flag.
★ Flag Code of India, 2002 → Defines proper usage of the flag.
★ Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 → Prohibits misuse of the flag.
★ Using the flag as a covering → Disrespectful and legally punishable.
★ Citizens’ Responsibility → Ensure dignity and honor of the National Flag.

➤ The Justice Verma Committee (1999) identified that there are existing legal provisions for the implementation of some Fundamental Duties.
➤ The committee was set up to suggest ways to operationalize Fundamental Duties and ensure their enforcement.
➤ It pointed out that many laws, such as:
➔ The Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 → Protects the dignity of the National Flag and National Anthem.
➔ The Representation of the People Act, 1951 → Ensures free and fair elections.
➔ Various environmental protection laws → Enforce Article 51A(g) (duty to protect the environment).

★ Justice Verma Committee (1999) → Reviewed Fundamental Duties’ implementation.
★ Legal Provisions Identified → Some duties already enforceable under existing laws.
★ Key laws → National Honour Act, Representation of People Act, Environmental Laws.
★ Objective → Strengthen enforcement of Fundamental Duties.
★ Conclusion → Citizens must be made aware of their constitutional responsibilities.

➤ The Factoring Regulation (Amendment) Bill, 2021 was passed by the Parliament in July 2021 to help micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) with better access to working capital.
➤ The Bill amended the Factoring Regulation Act, 2011, making it easier for MSMEs to sell their receivables to NBFCs (Non-Banking Financial Companies), thereby improving their liquidity.
➤ Key Benefits of the Bill:
➔ Increased participation of NBFCs in the factoring business, providing more funding options.
➔ Faster clearance of invoices, reducing delays in payments to MSMEs.
➔ Boosted credit availability, improving cash flow for small businesses.

★ Factoring Regulation (Amendment) Bill, 2021 → Helps MSMEs get working capital.
★ Amends → Factoring Regulation Act, 2011.
★ Enables → NBFCs to participate more in invoice financing.
★ Reduces payment delays → Faster access to funds for MSMEs.
★ Objective → Improve liquidity and credit availability for small businesses.

➤ The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was set up in December 1953 to recommend the reorganization of states based on linguistic lines.
➤ It was chaired by Fazl Ali, with H.N. Kunzru and K.M. Panikkar as members.
➤ The SRC submitted its report in 1955, leading to the passing of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956.
➤ As a result, 14 states and 6 union territories were created on 1st November 1956.
➤ The demand for linguistic states began after Potti Sriramulu’s death in 1952, which led to the formation of Andhra Pradesh for Telugu-speaking people.

★ SRC set up → December 1953.
★ Chairperson → Fazl Ali, members: H.N. Kunzru, K.M. Panikkar.
★ Submitted report → 1955, leading to linguistic reorganization.
★ States Reorganisation Act, 1956 → Created 14 states & 6 UTs.
★ First linguistic state → Andhra Pradesh (1953), after Potti Sriramulu’s agitation.