➤ Article 148 of the Indian Constitution provides for the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India.
➤ The CAG is responsible for auditing the accounts of the Union and State governments, including government-owned corporations.
➤ The President of India appoints the CAG, and they hold office for 6 years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
➤ The CAG ensures financial accountability and acts as the guardian of public funds.
➤ The CAG’s reports are submitted to the President or Governor, who then lays them before Parliament or the State Legislature.

★ Article 148 → Establishes the office of the CAG.
★ Appointment → By the President of India.
★ Tenure → 6 years or until 65 years of age.
★ Role → Audits Union & State government accounts.
★ Reports to → President/Governor, then presented in Parliament/State Legislature.

➤ Part V of the Indian Constitution deals with the Union Government, including the election of the Vice President.
➤ The Vice President’s election is governed by Article 63 to Article 71.
➤ The Vice President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of:
➔ Elected & nominated members of both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha).
➔ State Legislatures have no role in this election.
➤ The election follows the proportional representation system using the single transferable vote method.
➤ The Vice President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and acts as the President in case of vacancy under Article 65.

★ Part V → Deals with the Union Government, including the Vice President.
★ Articles 63-71 → Cover the Vice President’s election and functions.
★ Electoral College → Only Members of Parliament (MPs) vote, not MLAs.
★ Voting system → Proportional representation with a single transferable vote.
★ Article 65 → Vice President acts as President in case of vacancy.

➤ A Money Bill can only be introduced in the State Legislative Assembly with the prior permission of the Governor under Article 207 of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The Governor either gives approval or reserves the Bill for the President’s consideration.
➤ Money Bills deal with matters related to taxation, borrowing, and expenditure from the state’s Consolidated Fund.
➤ In the state legislature, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly decides whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not.
➤ Similar to the Parliament, Money Bills in states cannot be introduced in the Legislative Council (if the state has one).

★ Article 207 → Money Bills in the State Legislature.
★ Introduced only in → State Legislative Assembly.
★ Governor’s prior permission → Required before introduction.
★ Deals with → Taxes, borrowing, and expenditure.
★ Legislative Council’s role → Can only recommend changes within 14 days.

➤ The 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016, led to the formation of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council.
➤ It inserted Article 279A, which established the GST Council to decide tax rates, exemptions, and rules under GST.
➤ The GST was introduced to replace multiple indirect taxes like VAT, excise duty, and service tax with a single tax system.
➤ The GST Council is chaired by the Union Finance Minister and includes state finance ministers.
➤ The GST system came into effect on 1st July 2017.

★ 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016 → Introduced GST.
★ Article 279A → Established the GST Council.
★ GST Council Chairperson → Union Finance Minister.
★ Objective → Replaced multiple indirect taxes with a single tax system.
★ Effective Date → Implemented from 1st July 2017.

➤ Parliament is the legislative organ of the Union Government in India.
➤ It is responsible for making, amending, and repealing laws for the country.
➤ The Indian Parliament consists of:
➔ Lok Sabha (House of the People) → Elected representatives.
➔ Rajya Sabha (Council of States) → Representatives of states & UTs.
➔ President of India → Plays a key role in the legislative process.
➤ Article 79 of the Constitution defines the structure of Parliament.
➤ Parliament controls the executive through debates, discussions, and no-confidence motions.

★ Parliament = Legislative Organ → Makes laws for the nation.
★ Article 79 → Defines the structure of Parliament.
★ Lok Sabha + Rajya Sabha + President → Three components of Parliament.
★ Controls the Executive → Through discussions & motions.
★ Passes Budgets & Laws → Governs policies and national development.

➤ The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body established under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
➤ The composition of NHRC includes:
➔ Chairperson → A former Chief Justice of India.
➔ Members:
» One former Judge of the Supreme Court.
» One former Chief Justice of a High Court.
» Three members with knowledge of human rights.
➔ Ex-officio Members → Chairpersons of National Commissions (SC, ST, Women, Minorities, Backward Classes).
➤ A District Magistrate (DM) is not a member of the NHRC, as their role is administrative at the district level, not at the national level.

★ NHRC Chairperson → Former Chief Justice of India.
★ Members include → Former Supreme Court Judge & Former High Court Chief Justice.
★ Ex-officio Members → Chairpersons of various National Commissions.
★ District Magistrate (DM) is NOT a member → Their role is administrative, not human rights policy-making.
★ Established under → Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

➤ Article 226 of the Indian Constitution grants writ jurisdiction to High Courts, similar to Article 32, which gives this power to the Supreme Court.
➤ Article 226 allows High Courts to issue writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights and other legal rights.
➤ The five types of writs that can be issued are:
➔ Habeas Corpus → Protection against illegal detention.
➔ Mandamus → Directs a public official to perform their duty.
➔ Prohibition → Prevents lower courts from exceeding their jurisdiction.
➔ Certiorari → Transfers a case from a lower court to a higher court.
➔ Quo Warranto → Questions the legal right of a person to hold public office.
➤ Unlike Article 32, which is limited to Fundamental Rights, Article 226 applies to both Fundamental Rights and other legal rights.

★ Article 226 → Gives writ jurisdiction to High Courts.
★ Similar to Article 32 → But broader in scope.
★ Covers Fundamental Rights & Legal Rights → Unlike Article 32, which is limited to Fundamental Rights.
★ Five Writs → Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto.
★ Power of High Courts → More extensive than the Supreme Court in writ jurisdiction.

➤ Fundamental Duties are listed under Article 51A of the Indian Constitution, added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
➤ Out of the given options, “To pay income tax” and “To cast a vote in elections” are NOT Fundamental Duties.
➤ The duty to safeguard public property (Article 51A(i)) and the duty to defend the country (Article 51A(d)) are prescribed as Fundamental Duties.
➤ Paying income tax is a legal obligation, but it is not included as a Fundamental Duty.
➤ Voting in elections is a constitutional right, not a Fundamental Duty, though it is encouraged as a civic responsibility.

★ Article 51A → Lists Fundamental Duties.
★ 42nd Amendment, 1976 → Introduced Fundamental Duties.
★ Not Fundamental Duties → Paying income tax & voting in elections.
★ Fundamental Duties mentioned → Defending the country & safeguarding public property.
★ Voting → A right, not a constitutional duty.

➤ The President of India must fulfill certain conditions while holding office, as mentioned in Article 59 of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The conditions for the President’s office include:
➔ He shall not be a member of either House of Parliament (Must resign if he is a member) 
➔ His allowances and privileges shall not be reduced during his term
➔ He shall not hold any other office of profit
➤ However, the President is entitled to use his official residence (Rashtrapati Bhavan) without paying rent.

★ Article 59 → Specifies conditions for the President’s office.
★ Not a member of Parliament → Must resign if elected as President.
★ No office of profit → To maintain impartiality.
★ Salary & allowances protected → Cannot be reduced during the term.
★ Free residence → President lives in Rashtrapati Bhavan without rent.

➤ Article 75 of the Indian Constitution states that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President.
➤ The President appoints the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha as the Prime Minister.
➤ If no party has a clear majority, the President may invite the leader most likely to command the confidence of the House.
➤ The Prime Minister holds office during the pleasure of the President, but in practice, he remains in power as long as he has a majority in the Lok Sabha.
➤ The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, as per Article 75(3).

★ Article 75 → President appoints the Prime Minister.
★ Leader of the majority party → Usually chosen as PM.
★ Holds office during the pleasure of the President → But must have Lok Sabha’s confidence.
★ Article 75(3) → Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
★ Parliamentary system → PM is the head of government, while the President is the constitutional head.

➤ The concept of ‘Independence of Judiciary’ in the Indian Constitution is borrowed from the U.S. Constitution.
➤ The judiciary in India is independent from the executive and legislature, ensuring fair and impartial justice.
➤ Key provisions ensuring judicial independence include:
➔ Security of tenure → Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts cannot be removed arbitrarily (Article 124(4) for SC judges).
➔ Fixed salaries → Judges’ salaries and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India, making them non-votable in Parliament.
➔ Power of judicial review → The Supreme Court and High Courts can strike down unconstitutional laws.
➔ Ban on practice after retirement → SC judges cannot plead in any court after retirement.

★ Independence of Judiciary → Borrowed from the U.S. Constitution.
★ Article 124(4) → Ensures security of tenure for Supreme Court judges.
★ Judicial Review → Courts can declare laws unconstitutional.
★ No arbitrary removal → Impeachment process required.
★ Salaries & Allowances → Drawn from Consolidated Fund of India, not subject to parliamentary voting.

➤ The law-making process in India is inspired by the British Constitution.
➤ India follows the Parliamentary system of government, where laws are made by the Legislature (Parliament).
➤ The structure of law-making in India is similar to Britain’s Westminster Model, which includes:
➔ Bicameral Legislature → Lok Sabha (House of the People) & Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
➔ Prime Minister & Council of Ministers → Responsible for policy-making and introducing bills.
➔ Parliamentary Sovereignty → Parliament can make and amend laws, but subject to judicial review.
➔ Speaker’s Role → The presiding officer in the Lok Sabha, inspired by the British system.

★ Law-making inspired by → British Constitution.
★ Bicameral System → Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha, similar to Britain.
★ Parliamentary Government → Executive is responsible to the Legislature.
★ Prime Minister’s Role → Based on the UK model.
★ Speaker’s Role → Similar to the British House of Commons.

➤ On Republic Day (26th January), the Governor of the state unfurls the national flag in the state capital.
➤ In contrast, the President of India hoists the flag at Rajpath (Kartavya Path), New Delhi during the national Republic Day celebrations.
➤ The Chief Minister does not unfurl the flag on Republic Day; instead, they do so on Independence Day (15th August) in the state capital.
➤ The Governor represents the President at the state level, making it their duty to lead official ceremonies.

★ Republic Day (26th January) → Governor unfurls the flag in the state capital.
★ Independence Day (15th August) → Chief Minister unfurls the flag in the state capital.
★ President of India → Hoists the flag in New Delhi on Republic Day.
★ Governor’s Role → Represents the President in the state.

➤ As of March 2023, India has 25 High Courts.
➤ High Courts are the highest judicial authority in a state or a group of states/Union Territories.
➤ The oldest High Court in India is the Calcutta High Court, established in 1862.
➤ The newest High Court is the Andhra Pradesh High Court, established in 2019 after the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
➤ Some High Courts have jurisdiction over multiple states/UTs, like the Bombay High Court, which covers Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, and Daman & Diu.

★ Total High Courts → 25 (as of March 2023).
★ Oldest High Court → Calcutta High Court (1862).
★ Newest High Court → Andhra Pradesh High Court (2019).
★ Some High Courts cover multiple states/UTs.
★ High Courts are established under Article 214 of the Constitution.

➤ “To protect and improve the natural environment” is a Fundamental Duty mentioned in Article 51A(g) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ It directs citizens to take steps to protect forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and promote a clean environment.
➤ By teaching composting, the student is helping in waste management and environmental conservation, which aligns with this duty.
➤ This duty emphasizes sustainable practices and encourages people to contribute towards a greener and cleaner environment.

★ Article 51A(g) → Protect and improve the natural environment.
★ Includes → Safeguarding forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.
★ Composting promotes → Waste management & sustainability.
★ Encourages → Citizens to adopt eco-friendly practices.
★ Supports → A cleaner and greener environment.

➤ Part XV of the Indian Constitution deals with Elections and the Election Commission of India (ECI).
➤ Article 324 provides for the Election Commission, which is responsible for conducting free and fair elections in India.
➤ The Election Commission oversees elections for:
➔ President & Vice President of India.
➔ Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha.
➔ State Legislative Assemblies & Councils.
➤ The Election Commission is an independent constitutional authority and ensures elections are held in a fair and impartial manner.

★ Part XV → Deals with elections and the Election Commission.
★ Article 324 → Establishes the Election Commission.
★ Conducts elections for → President, VP, Parliament, and State Legislatures.
★ Ensures → Free and fair elections in India.
★ Independent authority → Not controlled by the government.

➤ Article 80 of the Indian Constitution deals with the composition of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
➤ Rajya Sabha members include:
➔ 238 members → Represent States and Union Territories.
➔ 12 nominated members → Appointed by the President of India for their expertise in literature, science, art, and social service.
➤ Members of Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly by the Legislative Assemblies of States and Union Territories through a proportional representation system.
➤ Rajya Sabha is a permanent house, meaning it is never dissolved entirely—one-third of its members retire every two years.

★ Article 80 → Deals with the composition of the Rajya Sabha.
★ Total strength → 250 members (Maximum).
★ Elected members → 238 from States & UTs.
★ Nominated members → 12 experts by the President.
★ Rajya Sabha tenure → Permanent House, 1/3rd retires every 2 years.

➤ Articles 214 to 231 in Part VI of the Indian Constitution deal with the High Courts in India.
➤ Article 214 states that each state shall have a High Court.
➤ Key provisions related to High Courts:
➔ Article 215 → High Court to be a court of record.
➔ Article 216 → Composition of High Courts.
➔ Article 226 → Power of High Courts to issue writs (like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, etc.).
➔ Article 227 → High Court’s supervisory jurisdiction over lower courts.
➤ The High Courts are the highest judicial authority in a state and supervise District and Subordinate Courts.

★ Part VI (Articles 214-231) → Deals with High Courts.
★ Article 214 → Every state shall have a High Court.
★ Article 226 → High Courts can issue writs.
★ Article 227 → Supervisory power over lower courts.
★ High Courts → Highest judicial body in a state.

➤ The Upper House of a State Legislature is called the Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council).
➤ It is present only in some states that have a bicameral legislature.
➤ The Vidhan Parishad is similar to the Rajya Sabha at the state level, with members indirectly elected.
➤ Article 169 of the Indian Constitution allows states to create or abolish the Legislative Council by passing a resolution in the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly).
➤ Currently, only 6 states have a Legislative Council: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

★ Vidhan Parishad = Legislative Council → Upper House of a state.
★ Article 169 → Provision for creating or abolishing the Council.
★ Bicameral States (6) → UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.
★ Similar to Rajya Sabha → Members elected indirectly.
★ Not present in all states → Most states have only Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly).

➤ As per Article 124(1) of the Indian Constitution, the Supreme Court of India consists of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other Judges.
➤ Initially, the Supreme Court had only 7 judges, but the strength has been increased over the years through amendments.
➤ After the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act, 2019, the current sanctioned strength is 34 judges (1 Chief Justice + 33 other judges).
➤ The President of India appoints the Supreme Court judges based on the recommendation of the Collegium system.

★ Article 124(1) → Deals with the composition of the Supreme Court.
★ Total Strength → 34 judges (1 CJI + 33 other judges).
★ Increased by → Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act, 2019.
★ Appointed by → President of India on Collegium’s recommendation.
★ Judges’ Retirement Age → 65 years (as per Article 124).

➤ The Election Commission of India (ECI) was founded on 25th January 1950 to oversee and conduct free and fair elections in the country.
➤ It is an independent constitutional authority established under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The ECI is responsible for conducting elections for:
➔ President & Vice President of India
➔ Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha
➔ State Legislative Assemblies & Councils
➤ Initially, it was a single-member body, but since 1993, it has been a multi-member commission with a Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and two Election Commissioners.

★ Established on → 25th January 1950 (Celebrated as National Voters’ Day).
★ Article 324 → Provides for the Election Commission of India.
★ Conducts elections for → President, Vice President, Parliament, and State Legislatures.
★ Became a multi-member body → In 1993 (CEC + 2 Election Commissioners).
★ Ensures → Free and fair elections in India.

➤ Article 356 of the Indian Constitution provides for President’s Rule in a state, making it one of the most controversial provisions.
➤ President’s Rule is imposed when:
➔ The state government fails to function as per the Constitution.
➔ The Governor reports to the President that the state’s constitutional machinery has broken down.
➤ During President’s Rule:
➔ The state legislature is either dissolved or suspended.
➔ The Governor administers the state on behalf of the President.
➔ The Parliament makes laws for the state.
➤ This provision has been misused multiple times for political purposes, leading to debates on its necessity and scope.

★ Article 356 → President’s Rule in a state.
★ Invoked when → The state government fails to function constitutionally.
★ State legislature’s role → Dissolved or suspended.
★ Governor’s role → Acts as the President’s representative.
★ Criticism → Misused multiple times for political reasons.

➤ The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India heads the Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IAAD).
➤ The CAG is appointed by the President of India under Article 148 of the Constitution.
➤ The CAG is responsible for auditing the accounts of the Central and State Governments, public sector undertakings (PSUs), and other government organizations.
➤ The reports prepared by the CAG are submitted to the President or Governor, who then presents them before Parliament or the State Legislature.
➤ The CAG ensures financial accountability and transparency in government spending.

★ Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IAAD) → Headed by CAG.
★ Article 148 → Establishes the office of CAG.
★ Appointed by → President of India.
★ Role → Audits government finances & public sector undertakings.
★ Ensures → Financial transparency & accountability.

➤ Articles 168 to 212 in Part VI of the Indian Constitution deal with the State Legislature.
➤ The State Legislature consists of:
➔ Governor (Head of the state).
➔ Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) – Present in all states.
➔ Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) – Present only in some states (Bicameral Legislature).
➤ Key Articles related to the State Legislature:
➔ Article 168 → Composition of State Legislature (Unicameral or Bicameral).
➔ Article 170 → Composition of Legislative Assembly.
➔ Article 171 → Composition of Legislative Council.
➔ Article 174 → Sessions of the State Legislature.
➔ Article 200 → Assent of the Governor to Bills.

★ Articles 168-212 in Part VI → Deal with the State Legislature.
★ Article 168 → Defines Unicameral & Bicameral Legislatures.
★ Article 170 → Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha).
★ Article 171 → Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).
★ Article 200 → Governor’s assent to bills.

➤ The Government of India Act, 1858, transferred the power to rule India from the English East India Company to the British Crown.
➤ This was done after the Revolt of 1857, which exposed the inefficiency of the East India Company in governing India.
➤ The Act led to the abolition of the East India Company’s rule and placed India under direct British administration.
➤ It created the office of the Secretary of State for India, who was responsible for governing India on behalf of the British Crown.
➤ The Governor-General of India was renamed the Viceroy of India, with Lord Canning becoming the first Viceroy.

★ Government of India Act, 1858 → Ended East India Company’s rule.
★ Power transferred to → British Crown.
★ Reason → Aftermath of the Revolt of 1857.
★ Created → Office of the Secretary of State for India.
★ First Viceroy of India → Lord Canning.