➤ Movement: Singh Sabha Movement
➤ Founded in: 1873
➤ Location: Amritsar, Punjab

Objectives:
✧ Revive and reform Sikhism by eliminating superstitions and practices influenced by Hinduism and British colonialism.
✧ Promote education, especially in Punjabi using the Gurmukhi script.
✧ Protect Sikh religious practices and institutions from external influences.

Key Features:
✧ Emphasized a return to the core teachings of Sikh Gurus.
✧ Established Khalsa schools and promoted the publication of Sikh literature.
✧ Opposed proselytizing efforts by Christian missionaries and the influence of Brahmanical rituals.

Key Leaders:
✧ Thakur Singh Sandhawalia
✧ Giani Gian Singh
✧ Professor Gurmukh Singh

Significance:
✧ Laid the foundation for later movements like the Akali Movement and the Gurdwara Reform Movement.
✧ Helped define a clear Sikh identity in the face of religious and colonial pressures.

★ The Singh Sabha Movement was founded in 1873 in Amritsar.
★ It aimed to reform Sikh practices and revive traditional teachings.
★ Played a crucial role in shaping modern Sikh identity and educational reforms.

➤ Dynasty: Maitraka Dynasty
➤ Capital City: Valabhi (located in present-day Gujarat)
➤ Period: 5th to 8th century CE

Key Rulers:
✧ Shiladitya I – The most prominent ruler who consolidated Maitraka power and expanded the kingdom’s influence.
✧ Dhruvasena II Baladitya – Known for his alliance with Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

Cultural and Educational Significance:
✧ Valabhi was an important center of learning and often compared to Nalanda.
✧ The city promoted Buddhism and Hinduism under royal patronage.
✧ Hosted a renowned university attracting students from different regions of India and abroad.

Political Significance:
✧ Played a key role in controlling trade routes along the western coast of India.
✧ Maintained diplomatic relations with other powerful dynasties like the Guptas and Chalukyas.

★ Valabhi was the capital of the Maitraka Dynasty from the 5th to 8th century CE.
★ It was a significant center for education, trade, and culture in western India.
★ The Maitrakas contributed to the revival of Hinduism while also supporting Buddhism.

➤ Dynasty: Parthian Dynasty
➤ Location of Inscription: Takht-i-Bahi, near Mardan in present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Key Highlights:
✧ The inscription provides evidence of Parthian rule in the north-western regions of ancient India, particularly during the 1st century CE.
✧ It reflects the influence of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom under rulers like Gondophares, who controlled parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India.

Cultural and Historical Significance:
✧ The Parthians adopted and promoted a mix of Hellenistic and Indian cultural elements.
✧ Takht-i-Bahi later became an important center for Buddhism under the Kushan Empire, known for its monastic complexes.

Archaeological Importance:
✧ The site is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and offers valuable insights into early Buddhist monastic life and Indo-Parthian art.
✧ The inscription highlights the political control and cultural patronage of the Parthians in the region before the rise of the Kushans.

★ The Takht-i-Bahi inscription indicates the rule of the Parthian Dynasty in northwestern Pakistan.
★ The Parthians ruled during the 1st century CE and had strong cultural influences from both Indian and Hellenistic traditions.
★ The site later became a significant Buddhist monastic center.

➤ Initial Status: The Maitrakas were initially tributary chiefs under the Gupta Dynasty.

➤ Independence:
✧ After the decline of the Guptas in the late 5th century CE, the Maitrakas established an independent kingdom in western India.
✧ Their capital was at Valabhi (in present-day Gujarat).

➤ Key Ruler:
✧ Dhruvasena II Baladitya was the most notable ruler of the Maitraka dynasty.
✧ Maintained diplomatic relations with other powerful kingdoms, including Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty.

➤ Cultural Contributions:
✧ Promoted both Buddhism and Hinduism.
✧ Valabhi became a significant center for education and learning, comparable to Nalanda University.

➤ Significance:
✧ Played a crucial role in preserving Indian culture and learning during a politically unstable period after the fall of the Guptas.
✧ Helped maintain political stability and prosperity in western India until the rise of the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

★ The Maitrakas were tributary chiefs under the Guptas who later established an independent kingdom in western India.
★ Dhruvasena II Baladitya was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
★ Their capital, Valabhi, became a renowned center of learning and culture.

➤ Dynasty: Shunga Dynasty (Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga after the fall of the Mauryan Empire in 185 BCE)

➤ Religious Affiliation:
✧ According to inscriptions and historical texts, Pushyamitra Shunga was a devotee of Lord Krishna.
✧ Although he promoted Brahmanical practices, his devotion to Krishna reflects the growing influence of Vaishnavism during his reign.

➤ Religious Policies:
✧ Revived Brahmanical traditions that had declined under Mauryan patronage of Buddhism.
✧ Supported Vedic rituals such as the Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) to assert political power and religious authority.

➤ Cultural Significance:
✧ His reign marked a resurgence of Hinduism, particularly the Bhagavata (Krishna) cult.
✧ Contributed to the preservation of Sanskrit literature and Vedic rituals.

★ Pushyamitra Shunga was a devotee of Lord Krishna, according to inscriptions.
★ Promoted Brahmanical traditions while supporting Vaishnavism.
★ His reign marked a revival of Vedic rituals and Hindu practices in post-Mauryan India.

➤ Year Published: 1838
➤ Model: Logistic Equation Model of Population Growth

Key Features of the Logistic Equation:
✧ Describes how population growth slows down as resources become limited.
✧ The growth rate decreases as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the environment.
✧ Expressed by the equation:
 dN/dt = rN(1 – N/K)
 ✔ N = Population size
 ✔ r = Growth rate
 ✔ K = Carrying capacity

Significance:
✧ Provided a more realistic model compared to exponential growth, which assumes unlimited resources.
✧ Laid the foundation for modern ecology and population dynamics studies.
✧ Influenced later research by scientists like Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin in the field of evolutionary biology.

★ Pierre François Verhulst published the logistic equation model of population growth in 1838.
★ The model introduced the concept of carrying capacity, limiting population growth.
★ It remains a foundational theory in population ecology and environmental science.

➤ Institution: Gandharva Mahavidyalaya
➤ Founded by: Pandit Vinaya Chandra Maudgalya
➤ Year Established: 1939

Purpose:
✧ To promote and preserve Indian classical music and dance traditions.
✧ Provide structured training in Hindustani classical music, instrumental music, and various Indian dance forms like Kathak.

Key Features:
✧ Known for its emphasis on Gurukul-style training (teacher-disciple tradition).
✧ Offers courses in vocal, instrumental, and theoretical aspects of Indian classical music.
✧ Has produced renowned artists like Madhup Mudgal and Shubha Mudgal.

Significance:
✧ One of the most prestigious institutions for Indian classical arts in India.
✧ Plays a crucial role in preserving traditional music and encouraging new generations of classical musicians and dancers.

★ Gandharva Mahavidyalaya was founded by Pandit Vinaya Chandra Maudgalya in New Delhi in 1939.
★ It is a premier institution for training in Indian classical music and dance.
★ The school continues to be a vital center for nurturing classical artists in India.