➤ Date: 10 May 1857
➤ Event:
 ✧ The revolt began with the sepoys (Indian soldiers) stationed at the Meerut Cantonment.
 ✧ The immediate cause was the introduction of greased cartridges rumored to be coated with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim religious sentiments.
➤ Key Events:
 ✧ Sepoys revolted, attacked British officers, and freed imprisoned comrades.
 ✧ They marched to Delhi to seek the support of Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor.
➤ Impact:
 ✧ Marked the beginning of the Revolt of 1857.
 ✧ Sparked a widespread uprising across North and Central India.

★ The sepoys at Meerut began their journey to Delhi on 10 May 1857.
★ Marked the start of the First War of Indian Independence.
★ Led to the proclamation of Bahadur Shah II as the symbolic leader of the revolt.

➤ Position: Vakil (Regent/Prime Minister) under Mughal Emperor Akbar.
➤ Title: Received the honorific title of “Khan-i-Khanan” (Lord of Lords).
➤ Role:
 ✧ Served as regent during Akbar’s early reign (1556–1560) due to Akbar’s young age.
 ✧ Played a key role in consolidating Mughal authority after Humayun’s death.
➤ Key Achievements:
 ✧ Led the Mughal army to victory in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, securing Akbar’s throne.
 ✧ Helped stabilize the Mughal Empire during Akbar’s early years.
➤ Later Years:
 ✧ Fell out of favor due to court politics and was later assassinated in 1561.

★ Bairam Khan served as Vakil under Akbar and received the title Khan-i-Khanan.
★ Acted as regent during Akbar’s early reign.
★ Led the Mughal victory in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556).

➤ Dynasty: Mughal Empire
➤ Ruler: Humayun (Son of Babur)
➤ Timurid Tradition:
 ✧ Required the sharing of power among male family members.
 ✧ Humayun ruled over Delhi, Agra, and Central India.

➤ Kamran Mirza’s Territory:
 ✧ Controlled Afghanistan and Punjab.
 ✧ Ruled from Lahore as his capital.
➤ Conflict with Humayun:
 ✧ Kamran frequently opposed Humayun’s efforts to unify the empire.
 ✧ Betrayed Humayun during his struggles against Sher Shah Suri.
➤ Outcome:
 ✧ After Humayun regained the throne in 1555, Kamran was captured and later exiled to Mecca.

★ Kamran Mirza controlled Afghanistan and Punjab.
★ Frequent conflicts weakened Mughal unity during Humayun’s reign.
★ Eventually exiled after Humayun’s return to power.

➤ Governor-General: Lord Ripon (Reigned 1880–1884).
➤ Title: Known as the “Father of Local Self-Government in India”.

➤ Key Reforms:
 ✧ Introduced the concept of local self-governance to promote decentralization of power.
 ✧ Passed the Local Self-Government Resolution of 1882.
 ✧ Established municipal boards and district boards for local administration.

➤ Objectives:
 ✧ Involve Indians in local governance.
 ✧ Improve administrative efficiency and reduce the burden on the central government.

➤ Impact:
 ✧ Laid the foundation for democratic institutions at the grassroots level.
 ✧ Empowered local bodies to handle healthcare, sanitation, and education.

★ Lord Ripon is regarded as the Father of Local Self-Government in India.
★ Introduced the Local Self-Government Resolution of 1882.
★ Empowered Indians to participate in local governance.

➤ Ruler: Alauddin Khilji (Reigned 1296–1316 CE), of the Khilji Dynasty.
➤ Commander: Malik Kafur, Alauddin Khilji’s trusted general.
➤ Target Region: Devagiri (present-day Daulatabad, Maharashtra).
➤ Reason for Campaign:
 ✧ To extract tribute from Rama Chandra (Yadava ruler of Devagiri).
 ✧ Strengthen Delhi Sultanate’s influence over the Deccan region.
➤ Outcome:
 ✧ Rama Chandra agreed to pay regular tribute to Alauddin Khilji.
 ✧ Laid the foundation for future southern campaigns towards Warangal and Dwar Samudra.
➤ Significance:
 ✧ Marked the beginning of Khilji expansion into South India.
 ✧ Paved the way for increased control over the Deccan plateau.

★ Alauddin Khilji’s first southern campaign targeted Devagiri in 1307–08 AD.
★ Led by Malik Kafur, resulting in the submission of the Yadava ruler.
★ Established the foundation for future conquests in South India.

➤ Movement: Swadeshi Movement (Started in 1905 during the Partition of Bengal).
➤ Objective:
 ✧ Promote Indian-made goods and boycott British products.
 ✧ Encourage self-reliance and boost the Indian economy.
➤ Impact on Cotton Textile Industry:
 ✧ Boosted demand for Indian cotton textiles.
 ✧ Encouraged the growth of local textile mills and handloom industries.
 ✧ Reduced dependency on British imports.
➤ Post-Independence Significance:
 ✧ The spirit of self-reliance continued after 1947, strengthening the Indian cotton textile sector.
 ✧ Led to the development of major textile hubs like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, and Coimbatore.

★ The Swadeshi Movement gave a major boost to the Indian cotton textile industry.
★ Encouraged the boycott of British goods and promoted Indian-made textiles.
★ Led to the growth of indigenous textile production after independence.

➤ Title: Known as “Lok Nayak” (Leader of the People).
➤ Full Name: Jayaprakash Narayan (1902–1979).
➤ Major Contributions:
 ✧ Played a significant role in the Quit India Movement (1942).
 ✧ Leader of the Total Revolution Movement (Sampoorna Kranti) in the 1970s against corruption and authoritarianism.
➤ Political Stance:
 ✧ Initially a member of the Indian National Congress.
 ✧ Later opposed Indira Gandhi’s Emergency Rule (1975–77) and called for restoration of democracy.
➤ Legacy:
 ✧ Inspired the formation of the Janata Party, which came to power after the Emergency ended.
 ✧ Remains a symbol of democratic ideals and civil liberties in India.

★ Jayaprakash Narayan was called Lok Nayak for his leadership in pro-democracy movements.
★ Led the Total Revolution against corruption and authoritarianism.
★ Played a crucial role in restoring democracy after the Emergency.

➤ Dynasty: Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (ruled from the 8th to 11th century CE).
➤ Ruler: Nagabhatta I (Reigned c. 730–760 CE).
➤ Capital: Initially established at Bhinmal (present-day Rajasthan).
➤ Key Achievements:
 ✧ Successfully defended India from the invasions of Arab forces from Sindh.
 ✧ Strengthened the foundation of Pratihara power in Northwestern India.
➤ Later Expansion:
 ✧ Under rulers like Mihir Bhoja, the Pratiharas expanded their control over Kannauj.
➤ Significance:
 ✧ Played a crucial role in resisting Arab invasions and protecting the Indian subcontinent.
 ✧ Laid the foundation for the Tripartite Struggle with the Palas and Rashtrakutas over control of Kannauj.

★ Nagabhatta I was the ruler under whom the Pratiharas gained prominence.
★ Defended India from Arab invasions.
★ Established Bhinmal as the initial capital of the Pratiharas.

➤ Leader: Surya Sen (also known as Master Da).
➤ Date: April 18, 1930.
➤ Objective:
 ✧ To capture the British armoury in Chittagong (now in Bangladesh).
 ✧ Disrupt British communication lines and establish a provisional revolutionary government.
➤ Key Participants:
 ✧ Badal Gupta, Ganesh Ghosh, and Ananta Singh assisted Surya Sen in the operation.
➤ Outcome:
 ✧ Although the raid was partially successful, the revolutionaries were eventually overpowered by British forces.
 ✧ Surya Sen was later captured and executed in 1934.
➤ Significance:
 ✧ Inspired future revolutionary movements against British colonial rule.
 ✧ Became a symbol of bravery and sacrifice in India’s struggle for independence.

★ Surya Sen led the Chittagong Armoury Raid in 1930.
★ Aimed to overthrow British authority in Chittagong.
★ Inspired future revolutionary activities across India.

➤ Officially known as the Indian Councils Act of 1909.
➤ Named after John Morley (Secretary of State for India) and Lord Minto (Viceroy of India).
➤ Expanded both Central and Provincial Legislative Councils.
➤ Allowed more Indian members to participate, including non-official members.
➤ Introduced separate electorates for Muslims for the first time in Indian politics.
➤ Enabled Muslims to elect their own representatives, fostering communal representation.

★ The Morley-Minto Reforms are officially known as the Indian Councils Act, 1909.
★ Increased Indian representation in legislative councils.
★ Introduced separate electorates for Muslims, beginning communal representation in India.

➤ Ruler: Sawai Jai Singh II (Reigned 1700–1743 CE), ruler of Amber (Jaipur).
➤ Contribution: Built five astronomical observatories (known as Jantar Mantar) across North India.
➤ Locations of Observatories:
 ✧ Delhi
 ✧ Jaipur (largest and best-preserved)
 ✧ Ujjain
 ✧ Varanasi
 ✧ Mathura (now mostly destroyed)

➤ Purpose:
 ✧ To improve astronomical calculations and aid in calendar reform.
 ✧ Observatories used for tracking celestial bodies and predicting eclipses.
➤ Architectural Significance:
 ✧ Blended Indian architecture with scientific precision.
 ✧ Instruments were built from masonry, stone, and brass.

★ Sawai Jai Singh II built five astronomical observatories across North India.
★ Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is the largest and best-preserved observatory.
★ Used for celestial observations and improving astronomical calculations.

➤ Dynasty: Pallava Dynasty (ruled from the 6th to 9th century CE).
➤ Reign: 600–630 CE.
➤ Capital: Kanchipuram (present-day Tamil Nadu).

➤ Key Contributions:
 ✧ Patron of art, architecture, and literature.
 ✧ Authored the famous Sanskrit satirical play “Mattavilasa Prahasana”.
 ✧ Initiated the construction of rock-cut temples in Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram).

➤ Conflicts:
 ✧ Defended the Pallava kingdom against invasions by the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II.

➤ Successor: Narasimhavarman I (his son), who continued his legacy of architectural achievements and military victories.

★ Mahendravarman I was a ruler of the Pallava Dynasty.
★ Known for promoting art, literature, and temple architecture.
★ Defended his kingdom against the Chalukyas.

➤ Traveler: Ibn Battuta – A Moroccan explorer and scholar.
➤ Visited India: During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE).
➤ Key Observation:
 ✧ Noted that the people of Delhi used to write abusive letters to the Sultan.
 ✧ To prevent such dissent, Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in present-day Maharashtra).
➤ Reason for Capital Shift:
 ✧ Strengthen control over the Deccan region.
 ✧ Punish and suppress the rebellious nature of the Delhi populace.

➤ Outcome:
 ✧ The forced migration caused hardships for the people.
 ✧ Ultimately, the capital was shifted back to Delhi due to logistical difficulties.

★ Ibn Battuta recorded that abusive letters led Muhammad bin Tughlaq to shift the capital.
★ The capital was moved from Delhi to Daulatabad.
★ The decision caused hardships and was eventually reversed.

➤ Ruler: Ghiyas ud-din Balban (Reigned 1266–1287 CE), of the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty.
➤ Department: Diwan-i-Arz – The Military Department of the Delhi Sultanate.

➤ Purpose of Reorganization:
 ✧ To strengthen and streamline the military administration.
 ✧ Ensure better control over the recruitment, training, and discipline of the army.
➤ Key Reforms:
 ✧ Introduced regular inspections of soldiers and horses.
 ✧ Maintained detailed records of military strength and efficiency.
 ✧ Ensured loyalty of the military by directly supervising officers.

➤ Impact:
 ✧ Strengthened the centralized control of the Sultanate.
 ✧ Helped maintain internal security and suppress revolts effectively.

★ Balban reorganized the Diwan-i-Arz to improve military administration.
★ Focused on recruitment, training, and discipline of the army.
★ Strengthened the Sultanate’s defense system and centralized power.

➤ Event: Coronation of Akbar as the Mughal Emperor.
➤ Year: 1556, after the death of his father Humayun.
➤ Age: Akbar was just 13 years old at the time of his coronation.
➤ Location: Kalanaur, located in present-day Punjab.

➤ Key Figures:
 ✧ Bairam Khan acted as Akbar’s regent and mentor.
 ✧ Played a significant role in consolidating Akbar’s early rule.

➤ Significance:
 ✧ Soon after his coronation, Akbar faced the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, where his forces emerged victorious.
 ✧ Marked the beginning of Akbar’s long and influential reign.

★ Akbar was coronated in Kalanaur, Punjab, in 1556.
★ Bairam Khan served as regent during his early reign.
★ This coronation laid the foundation for Akbar’s successful expansion of the Mughal Empire.

➤ Kingdom: Pallava Dynasty (ruled from the 6th to 9th century CE).
➤ Key Rulers:
 ✧ Mahendravarman I – Initiated rock-cut architecture in Mahabalipuram.
 ✧ Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) – Expanded temple construction and gave Mahabalipuram the title “City of Mamalla”.

➤ Architectural Significance:
 ✧ Known for its rock-cut temples and monolithic structures.
 ✧ Famous monuments include:
  ✔ Rathas (chariot-shaped temples) – Represent different styles of Dravidian architecture.
  ✔ Shore Temple – A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  ✔ Descent of the Ganges – One of the largest open-air rock reliefs in the world.

➤ Cultural Importance:
 ✧ Served as a hub for art, architecture, and maritime trade.
 ✧ Influenced later Chola architecture and South Indian temple styles.

★ Mahabalipuram emerged as an architectural hub under the Pallava Dynasty.
★ Narasimhavarman I played a major role in its development.
★ Famous for its rock-cut temples, Shore Temple, and monolithic structures.

➤ Dynasty: Kushana Dynasty (ruled from the 1st to 3rd century CE).
➤ Reign: Vasudeva I (c. 190–230 CE), the last great ruler of the Kushanas.

➤ Coinage:
 ✧ Issued coins in gold (called dinars and quarter dinars) and copper (single denomination).
 ✧ Featured inscriptions in Bactrian script and symbols related to Hinduism and Buddhism.
 ✧ Coins often depicted the Hindu god Shiva and his bull Nandi, showing a shift toward Indian religious symbolism.

➤ Significance:
 ✧ Marked the transition of the Kushanas from their Central Asian origins to embracing Indian culture and religion.
 ✧ Represented the final phase of Kushana influence in North India before the rise of the Guptas.

★ Vasudeva I was a ruler of the Kushana Dynasty.
★ Issued gold dinars, quarter dinars, and copper coins.
★ His reign marked a cultural shift toward Indian religious traditions.

➤ Greek Ambassador: Deimachus
➤ Indian Ruler: Bindusara (Reigned c. 297–273 BCE), the second Mauryan emperor and son of Chandragupta Maurya.
➤ Sent by: The Seleucid Empire (Greek Empire) under Antiochus I Soter.

➤ Purpose of Mission:
 ✧ Strengthen diplomatic and trade relations between the Mauryan Empire and Greece.
 ✧ Followed the earlier mission of Megasthenes, who had visited during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.

➤ Key Contributions:
 ✧ Helped foster cultural and commercial exchanges between India and the Hellenistic world.
 ✧ Documented aspects of Mauryan administration and society, though most records have been lost.

★ Deimachus was the Greek ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
★ Sent by Antiochus I Soter to maintain diplomatic relations.
★ Strengthened Indo-Greek ties after Megasthenes’ earlier mission.

➤ Dynasty: Vakataka Dynasty (ruled from the 3rd to 5th century CE).
➤ Ruler: Rudrasena II
➤ Marriage Alliance:
 ✧ Married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II (also known as Vikramaditya) of the Gupta Dynasty.

➤ Significance of the Alliance:
 ✧ Strengthened political ties between the Vakatakas and the Guptas.
 ✧ Marked the cultural and political influence of the Gupta Empire in the Deccan region.
 ✧ After Rudrasena II’s death, Prabhavatigupta served as regent for her young sons, maintaining strong Gupta influence in Vakataka affairs.

➤ Cultural Impact:
 ✧ The alliance led to the spread of Gupta art, culture, and administrative practices in the Vakataka kingdom.
 ✧ Played a significant role in promoting Hinduism and Sanskrit literature in the Deccan region.

★ Rudrasena II belonged to the Vakataka Dynasty.
★ Married Prabhavatigupta, forming a strong alliance with the Gupta Dynasty.
★ Strengthened political and cultural ties between North and South India.

➤ Dynasty: Vakataka Dynasty (ruled from the 3rd to 5th century CE).
➤ Founder: Vindhyashakti (Reigned c. 250 CE).
➤ Region:
 ✧ Initially established in the Deccan region, particularly in Vidarbha (present-day Maharashtra).
 ✧ Later expanded influence to parts of Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

➤ Significance:
 ✧ Laid the foundation for a powerful dynasty that succeeded the Satavahanas in the Deccan.
 ✧ The Vakatakas later became known for their political alliance with the Gupta Dynasty through marriage.

➤ Cultural Contributions:
 ✧ Patronized art and architecture, including the famous Ajanta Caves during the reign of Harishena (a later Vakataka ruler).
 ✧ Played a key role in the spread of Hinduism in Central India.

★ Vindhyashakti was the founder of the Vakataka Dynasty.
★ Established control over the Deccan region after the Satavahanas.
★ The dynasty became culturally significant for its contributions to art and architecture.

➤ Artistic School: Mathura School of Art
➤ Period: Flourished during the Kushana Dynasty (1st to 3rd century CE).
➤ Key Ruler: Kanishka I (the most prominent patron of the Kushana period).

➤ Key Features of Mathura Art:
 ✧ Made primarily from red sandstone.
 ✧ Depicted indigenous Indian styles with spiritual expressions and physical vitality.
 ✧ Carvings featured Brahmanical deities such as:
  ✔ Kartikeya (god of war)
  ✔ Vishnu (protector of the universe)
  ✔ Kubera (god of wealth)

➤ Religious Influence:
 ✧ Supported the growth of Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu art forms.
 ✧ Emergence of early images of Buddha in human form (anthropomorphic representation).

➤ Significance:
 ✧ The Mathura School laid the foundation for future developments in Indian sculpture and iconography.
 ✧ Strong influence on the later Gupta school of art.

★ The Mathura School of Art flourished during the Kushana period.
★ Depicted Brahmanical deities like Kartikeya, Vishnu, and Kubera.
★ Known for its indigenous style and religious diversity.

➤ Leader: Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
➤ Year: 1927
➤ Event: Mahad Satyagraha – Marked the beginning of the Temple Entry Movement.

➤ Objective:
 ✧ To secure equal rights for Dalits (Depressed Classes) to access public places, including temples and water sources.
 ✧ Challenge the untouchability practices prevalent in Hindu society.

➤ Key Events:
 ✧ In 1927, Dr. Ambedkar and his followers drank water from the Chavdar Tank in Mahad, Maharashtra to assert their rights.
 ✧ Led protests demanding access to temples and public spaces traditionally denied to Dalits.

➤ Significance:
 ✧ A major milestone in the Dalit rights movement in India.
 ✧ Strengthened Ambedkar’s position as a social reformer and leader of the oppressed classes.

★ The Temple Entry Movement was started by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in 1927.
★ Aimed to fight caste discrimination and promote equality.
★ The Mahad Satyagraha marked the beginning of the movement.

➤ Ruler: Rudradaman I (Reigned 130–150 CE), a ruler of the Western Kshatrapas.
➤ Location: Girnar Hill, near Junagadh, Gujarat.
➤ Date: 2nd century CE

➤ Significance:
 ✧ The first royal inscription in chaste Sanskrit (instead of Prakrit, which was commonly used in earlier inscriptions).
 ✧ Marks the beginning of Sanskrit as a formal language for royal inscriptions and official communication in India.

➤ Content of the Inscription:
 ✧ Describes Rudradaman’s military victories and administrative achievements.
 ✧ Records the repair of the Sudarsana Lake, originally built during the Mauryan period.
 ✧ Highlights his patronage of art, culture, and infrastructure development.

➤ Cultural Impact:
 ✧ Set a precedent for later dynasties, like the Guptas, to use Sanskrit for official inscriptions.
 ✧ Important for understanding early Indian political history and linguistic development.

★ The Girnar Inscription was the first royal inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
★ Issued by Rudradaman I of the Western Kshatrapas.
★ Highlights military victories and infrastructure development efforts.

➤ Three Main Sections of Rigvedic Society:

1. Priests (Brahmins):
    ✧ Performed religious rituals and sacrifices.
    ✧ Held high social status due to their spiritual authority.

2. Warriors (Kshatriyas):
    ✧ Responsible for protection and warfare.
    ✧ Included kings, chiefs, and military leaders who defended the tribe.

3. Ordinary People (Vaishyas):
    ✧ Engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade.
    ✧ Contributed to the tribe’s economy through their labor and resources.

➤ Craftsmen:
✧ Although artisans and craftsmen existed in Rigvedic society, they were not classified as a distinct section within the tribal social structure.
✧ Their roles were usually considered a part of the broader category of Vaishyas or sometimes associated with lower sections like the Shudras (mentioned in later Vedic texts).

★ Craftsman was not considered a distinct section in the Rigvedic tribal structure.
★ The three main sections were Priests, Warriors, and Ordinary People.
★ Craftsmen were typically part of the economic activities handled by Vaishyas.

➤ Dhamma: A code of moral conduct promoted by Emperor Ashoka after the Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE).
➤ Purpose: To ensure ethical governance, promote social harmony, and uphold moral values across his vast empire.

Basic Attributes of Ashoka’s Dhamma:

1. Political Unification 
    ✧ Aimed to unify the diverse regions of the Mauryan Empire under a common moral code.

2. Ahimsa (Non-violence) 
    ✧ Emphasized non-violence towards humans and animals.
    ✧ Banned animal sacrifices and promoted compassion.

3. Secularism 
    ✧ Promoted religious tolerance and respect for all faiths.
    ✧ Encouraged mutual respect among different religious communities.

What Was NOT Included:

Celibacy 
✧ Ashoka’s Dhamma did not focus on celibacy as a core principle.
✧ It was more concerned with ethical living, non-violence, and social welfare than personal lifestyle choices like celibacy.

★ Celibacy was not a basic attribute of Ashoka’s Dhamma.
★ Dhamma focused on non-violence, political unity, and religious tolerance.
★ Promoted ethical governance and social harmony across his empire.