➤ The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, added a new part to the Constitution: Part IV-A, which deals with Fundamental Duties.
➤ This amendment inserted Article 51A, which originally laid down 10 Fundamental Duties for the citizens of India.

★ These duties were based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee (1976).
★ Currently, there are 11 Fundamental Duties (the 11th was added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002).

➤ Article 21 of the Constitution deals with the Right to Life and Personal Liberty, stating: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
➤ It is a part of the Fundamental Rights (Part III) of the Constitution.
➤ Amendments to Fundamental Rights require a special majority under Article 368, not a simple majority.

★ Article 21 CANNOT be amended by a simple majority because it falls under Part III – Fundamental Rights, which are considered basic features of the Constitution and need a special procedure for amendment.
★ On the other hand, Articles 2, 3, and 169 can be amended by simple majority as they are not part of the Fundamental Rights.

➤ Article 30 of the Indian Constitution grants all minorities, whether based on religion or language, the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
➤ It aims to preserve the cultural and educational rights of minorities.
➤ Article 30(1) specifically ensures that minorities can set up their own institutions.
➤ Article 30(2) ensures that the State shall not discriminate in granting aid to such institutions.

★ Article 30 protects the rights of both religious and linguistic minorities.
★ This article is part of the Fundamental Rights under Part III of the Constitution.
★ Minority institutions can receive government aid without giving up their minority status.
★ This article is crucial for preserving cultural diversity and educational autonomy.

➤ Article 39(d) is part of the Directive Principles of State Policy under Part IV of the Indian Constitution.
➤ It directs the State to ensure that men and women are paid equally for equal work.
➤ In the case where A (female) and B (male) are doing the same work with unequal pay, it violates the principle of equal pay for equal work as per Article 39(d).
➤ Though not enforceable in courts, this article guides the legislature and policies to promote gender equality in wages.

★ Article 39(d) ensures equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
★ It is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (not enforceable but fundamental in governance).
★ Related laws like the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 were enacted based on this principle.

➤ Article 361 of the Indian Constitution provides immunity to the President, Governors, and Rajpramukhs from court proceedings during their term in office.
➤ It states that the President or a Governor shall not be answerable to any court for the exercise of powers and duties of their office.
➤ No criminal proceedings can be instituted or continued against them during their term.
➤ They also cannot be arrested or imprisoned while holding office.

★ Article 361 provides constitutional protection to the President, Governors, and Rajpramukhs.
★ It ensures independence and dignity of high constitutional offices.
★ This protection is limited to official acts and valid only during the term of office.

➤ Articles 29 and 30 of the Indian Constitution deal with the Cultural and Educational Rights of citizens, especially of minorities.
➤ Article 29 ensures the protection of interests of minorities, allowing any section of citizens to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture.
➤ Article 30 grants minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice, whether based on religion or language.

★ Articles 29-30 are collectively known as Cultural and Educational Rights under Part III (Fundamental Rights).
★ These rights are primarily meant to safeguard the identity and heritage of minority communities.
★ Article 30(1) is often cited in legal cases regarding minority-run institutions.

➤ Article 16(4A) of the Indian Constitution provides for reservation in promotions in government jobs for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
➤ It was inserted by the 77th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1995.
➤ This provision applies only to the SCs and STs and is based on the premise of inadequate representation in public employment.
➤ The reservation in promotion is subject to the efficiency of administration as per Article 335.

★ Article 16(4A) deals specifically with promotion-based reservation for SCs/STs in government jobs.
★ It was added through the 77th Amendment Act in 1995.
★ It is an exception to the general rule of equality of opportunity under Article 16(1).

➤ The Constitution (One Hundredth Amendment) Act, 2015 came into force in the year 2015.
➤ It dealt with the exchange of certain territories between India and Bangladesh.
➤ This amendment was passed to implement the Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) signed between the two countries in 1974 and its protocol in 2011.
➤ The Act enabled the transfer of 111 Indian enclaves to Bangladesh and 51 Bangladeshi enclaves to India.

★ The 100th Constitutional Amendment Act came into effect in 2015.
★ It is related to the India–Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement.
★ It involved territorial adjustments and required constitutional amendment due to changes in the First Schedule of the Constitution.

➤ The Preamble of the Indian Constitution outlines the key ideals and philosophy of the nation.
➤ The correct word sequence in the Preamble is: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
➤ The words “Socialist” and “Secular” were added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
➤ The Preamble highlights India’s commitment to justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

★ The correct order as per the Preamble is: Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.
★ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 inserted the words Socialist and Secular.
★ The Preamble is considered a part of the Constitution and reflects its basic structure.

➤ Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
➤ They are non-justiciable, meaning they are not legally enforceable, but they are moral obligations for every citizen.
➤ Fundamental Rights and Duties are considered complementary to each other — rights give freedoms and duties ensure responsibility.
➤ The 11th Fundamental Duty was added by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, not the 78th.

★ Fundamental Duties are listed under Article 51A, Part IV-A of the Constitution.
★ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added 10 Fundamental Duties, and the 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th Duty.

➤ Federalism in the Indian context means the division of powers between the Central Government and the State Governments.
➤ It ensures two or more levels of government governing the same citizens but in different spheres of authority.
➤ Indian federalism is described as quasi-federal, meaning it has features of both federal and unitary systems.
➤ The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution divides subjects into Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.

★ Federalism implies the existence of more than one level of government — Centre and States.
★ Indian Constitution provides for cooperative federalism with a strong Centre.
★ The distribution of legislative powers is found in Article 246 and the Seventh Schedule.

➤ The Citizenship Act, 1955 provides provisions regarding the acquisition, determination, termination, and renunciation of Indian citizenship.
➤ It does not deal with the process of election, as that is governed under different laws like the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
➤ The Act covers methods such as birth, descent, registration, naturalization, and incorporation of territory for acquiring citizenship.

★ The Citizenship Act, 1955 does not cover ‘election’, which is handled under separate election laws.
★ It includes provisions for acquisition, determination, renunciation, and termination of citizenship.
★ Election-related matters are governed by the Representation of the People Act, 1951, not by the Citizenship Act.

➤ Any Indian citizen who is of full age and capacity can renounce their Indian citizenship by making a declaration under the Citizenship Act, 1955.
➤ After such declaration, the person ceases to be a citizen of India following its registration by the prescribed authority.
➤ If a minor child of that person is also included in the declaration, they will also cease to be Indian citizens — but they have the right to resume citizenship after attaining majority.

★ Renunciation of citizenship is governed by Section 8 of the Citizenship Act, 1955.
★ Only adult citizens (18 years or older) of sound mind can make such a declaration.
★ The Act provides a structured process for renunciation and resumption.

➤ Article 37 of the Indian Constitution states that Directive Principles are not enforceable by any court, but are fundamental in the governance of the country, and it is the duty of the State to apply them in making laws.
➤ Article 38 directs the State to strive for minimizing inequalities in income and ensuring social, economic, and political justice.
➤ Article 39 mentions that the State shall ensure equal pay for equal work for both men and women, along with other provisions for adequate means of livelihood and economic justice.

★ Directive Principles are mentioned in Part IV (Article 36 to 51) of the Constitution.
★ They are not justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced in any court, including the High Courts.
★ Article 38 and Article 39 focus on economic and gender justice, key goals of social welfare.

➤ Though India follows a federal structure, the Constitution refers to India as a “Union of States” and does not use the term “Federation”.
➤ Article 5 deals with citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution, not the creation of new states. The power to form new states is given under Article 3.
➤ On subjects in the Union List, only Parliament can make laws. State Legislatures cannot enact laws on Union List subjects.
➤ Both Parliament and State Legislatures can make laws on subjects in the Concurrent List, but in case of a conflict, the law made by Parliament prevails.

★ Article 3 empowers Parliament to create new states or alter boundaries.
★ Union List subjects are exclusively for Parliament, as per Seventh Schedule.
★ Concurrent List allows both Parliament and State Legislatures to legislate.

➤ Article 344(1) of the Indian Constitution provides for the appointment of a Commission by the President to make recommendations on the progressive use of Hindi for official purposes and restrictions on the use of English.
➤ Article 351 gives a directive for the development of the Hindi language, stating that it shall be the duty of the Union to promote Hindi so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India.
➤ Both these Articles deal with the promotion and development of Hindi, which is listed under the Eighth Schedule, where the Constitution recognizes official languages.

★ Articles 344(1) and 351 are connected with the Eighth Schedule, which currently lists 22 official languages.
★ The Eighth Schedule was originally created with 14 languages.
★ Promotion of Hindi and its use in official communication is a constitutional directive under these Articles.

➤ The Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), State Public Service Commissions (SPSC), and Joint Public Service Commission (JPSC) are constitutional bodies established under Part XIV (Services under the Union and the States) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ These institutions are meant to manage recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State.
➤ The presence of both central (UPSC) and state-level (SPSC) commissions signifies a division of power and responsibility between the Centre and States.
➤ This division reflects the federal structure of the Indian Constitution where powers are distributed among various levels of government.

★ The establishment of UPSC, SPSC, and JPSC highlights the federal nature of the Indian Constitution.
★ These are mentioned under Articles 315 to 323 in Part XIV.
★ Federalism implies the existence of two or more levels of government—a key feature represented by such commissions.

➤ Fundamental Duties were not introduced by the 44th Amendment Act; they were added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
➤ The 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th Fundamental Duty (51A(k)) which made it a duty of parents/guardians to provide opportunities for education to children aged 6–14 years.
➤ Article 51A(a) mentions that citizens should abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals, institutions, the national flag, and the national anthem.

★ Fundamental Duties were added by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, not the 44th.
★ Article 51A contains 11 Fundamental Duties.
★ The 11th duty (added by 86th Amendment) is about educational duty of parents.

➤ Article 11 of the Constitution of India gives plenary powers to the Parliament to make laws regarding the acquisition, termination, and other matters related to citizenship.
➤ While Articles 5 to 10 deal with citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution, Article 11 empowers the Parliament to regulate citizenship by law.

★ Article 11 provides Parliament the authority to make laws on citizenship.
★ Citizenship-related laws in India are governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955.
★ Articles 5 to 10 describe citizenship at the time of the Constitution’s commencement, but only Article 11 vests power to legislate.

➤ Article 79 of the Indian Constitution states that there shall be a Parliament for the Union, which shall consist of the President and two Houses – the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
➤ This Article defines the structure of the Union Parliament, but it does not deal with their individual powers or procedures.

★ Article 79 establishes the composition of the Indian Parliament.
★ The Indian Parliament = President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha.
★ Rajya Sabha is the Upper House, and Lok Sabha is the Lower House.

➤ The writ of prohibition is issued by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal to stop it from continuing proceedings that are beyond its jurisdiction, or in violation of the principles of natural justice.
➤ It is preventive in nature and aims to restrain judicial/quasi-judicial bodies from overstepping their authority.
➤ It can be issued only against judicial and quasi-judicial authorities, not against administrative or legislative bodies.

★ Writ of Prohibition stops lower courts/tribunals from acting beyond jurisdiction.
★ It is issued by High Courts or the Supreme Court under Article 226 or 32 respectively.
★ It is a preventive remedy unlike certiorari, which is corrective.

➤ The 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019 introduced 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in education and public employment.
➤ This amendment added Clause (6) to Article 15 and Article 16 of the Constitution.
➤ The EWS reservation is provided over and above the existing reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

★ The 103rd Amendment Act, 2019 enabled 10% EWS reservation in education and jobs.
★ It amended Articles 15 and 16 to include EWS as a reservation category.
★ On 7 November 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the EWS reservation.

➤ The Supreme Court of India made a significant observation stating that India cannot have a parallel judicial system—one for the rich and one for the poor.
➤ This was in context of equal access to justice and the need to maintain uniformity and fairness in legal proceedings for all citizens, regardless of socio-economic status.
➤ The court emphasized the importance of judicial equity in maintaining constitutional values.

★ The Supreme Court made this remark on the principle of equality before the law (Article 14).
★ The statement reflects the constitutional mandate of equal justice for all, reinforcing social justice ideals.
★ The observation highlights the role of the judiciary in ensuring fairness and impartiality in the legal system.

➤ The Right to Elementary Education is available to both Indian citizens and foreigners residing in India.
➤ This right is guaranteed under Article 21A, which was inserted by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.
➤ It mandates the State to provide free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years.

★ Article 21A provides the Right to Education as a Fundamental Right.
★ This right is applicable to both citizens and foreigners within the age group of 6–14 years.
★ It is a part of Part III (Fundamental Rights) of the Constitution and ensures universal access to education.
★ Most other Fundamental Rights like those under Articles 15, 16, 29, and 30 are only available to citizens.

➤ The Swaran Singh Committee was appointed in 1976 by the Indira Gandhi government to recommend changes to the Constitution during the Emergency period.
➤ This committee recommended the inclusion of 8 Fundamental Duties for the citizens of India.
➤ However, the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976, inserted 10 Fundamental Duties in Article 51A of Part IV-A.

★ Swaran Singh Committee recommended 8 Fundamental Duties in 1976.
★ 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 added 10 Fundamental Duties to the Constitution under Article 51A.
★ The 11th duty was later added by the 86th Amendment Act, 2002.

➤ The Limited Liability Partnership (Amendment) Bill, 2021 was passed by Parliament on 9 August 2021.
➤ This bill amended the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008.
➤ The amendment aimed to decriminalize minor offences, promote ease of doing business, and introduce the concept of small LLPs.
➤ It also sought to enhance transparency and accountability in the functioning of LLPs.
➤ A total of 12 offences were decriminalized, and provisions for compounding of offences were introduced.

★ The LLP Act, 2008 was amended by the LLP (Amendment) Act, 2021.
★ The amendment introduced small LLPs, similar to small companies under the Companies Act.
★ It came into effect to boost startup culture and entrepreneurship in India.
★ It also aligns with the Government’s goal of Ease of Doing Business.