➤ Provision for High Courts in India – Article 214 of the Indian Constitution states that “There shall be a High Court for each state.”
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 214-231 – These articles deal with the organization, jurisdiction, and powers of High Courts in India.
⇒ High Court Jurisdiction – A High Court has authority over the entire state or a Union Territory. Some High Courts have jurisdiction over multiple states/UTs (e.g., Bombay High Court for Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Daman & Diu).
⇒ Appointment of Judges (Article 217) – High Court judges are appointed by the President of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor of the respective state.
⇒ Power of Judicial Review – High Courts have the power to review laws and executive orders to ensure they comply with the Constitution.

★ Article 214 states that every state shall have a High Court.

➤ Annual Financial Statement (Budget) – Article 112 – Article 112 of the Indian Constitution deals with the Annual Financial Statement, commonly known as the Union Budget.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Definition – The Annual Financial Statement is a detailed statement of the estimated receipts and expenditures of the Government of India for a financial year.
⇒ Presentation – The budget is presented in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister, usually on February 1.
⇒ Three Parts of the Budget – It consists of (1) Consolidated Fund of India, (2) Contingency Fund of India, and (3) Public Account of India.
⇒ Parliamentary Approval – The budget must be passed by both Houses of Parliament before the new financial year begins on April 1.

★ Article 112 describes the Union Budget, making it a crucial provision for financial governance in India.

➤ Modernizing Agriculture & Animal Husbandry – Article 48 – Article 48 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP) – Article 48 is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV), which provides guidelines for socio-economic development.
⇒ Scientific Approach – The provision promotes the use of scientific methods in farming and animal rearing to boost productivity.
⇒ Prohibition of Cow Slaughter – It also instructs the State to prohibit the slaughter of cows, calves, and other milch and draught cattle.
⇒ Agricultural Reforms – Encourages research, mechanization, and improved breeding techniques in agriculture and livestock management.

★ Article 48 plays a key role in India’s agricultural policies, ensuring scientific advancements in farming and livestock management.

➤ Biological Diversity Act, 2002 & Directive Principles – The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was enacted to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable use of natural resources, and ensure fair benefit-sharing from biological resources.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 48A – This Directive Principle of State Policy (DPSP) directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
⇒ 42nd Amendment Act (1976) – Article 48A was added through this amendment, reinforcing environmental protection.
⇒ Sustainable Development – The Biological Diversity Act aligns with Article 48A by promoting conservation efforts, regulating access to biological resources, and ensuring their sustainable use.
⇒ National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) – The Act established the NBA to oversee biodiversity-related policies and ensure compliance with conservation laws.

★ Article 48A plays a crucial role in India’s environmental protection policies and directly aligns with the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.

➤ Morley-Minto Reforms & Separate Electorates – The Indian Councils Act, 1909, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, introduced separate electorates for Muslims, marking a significant shift in India’s electoral system.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Indian Councils Act, 1909 – Enacted during the tenure of Lord Minto (Viceroy) and John Morley (Secretary of State for India).
⇒ Separate Electorates – Muslims were granted the right to elect their own representatives, a move that fueled communal divisions in Indian politics.
⇒ Increased Legislative Seats – The Imperial Legislative Council’s size was expanded, but still lacked real power.
⇒ Criticism – The reforms were seen as a divide-and-rule strategy by the British, as they encouraged communal representation.
⇒ Foundation for Partition – The policy of separate electorates continued in later reforms and played a role in India’s eventual partition in 1947.

★ The Indian Councils Act, 1909, introduced separate electorates for Muslims, which had long-term political consequences in India.

➤ Governor for Two or More States – Article 153 of the Indian Constitution states that “There shall be a Governor for each State”, but it also allows the same person to be appointed as the Governor of two or more states.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Article 153 – Originally intended for one Governor per state, but was later interpreted to allow a single Governor for multiple states.
⇒ Appointment – The President of India appoints the Governor for a term of five years (Article 155).
⇒ Recent Instances – Governors have often been appointed for multiple states, such as Tamil Nadu & Telangana sharing a Governor in 2023.
⇒ Role of the Governor – Acts as the constitutional head of the state, with executive powers vested in the Chief Minister & Council of Ministers.

★ Article 153 allows the same person to serve as the Governor of two or more states, which has been exercised multiple times in Indian history.

➤ Composition of the Supreme Court – As per Article 124 of the Indian Constitution, the Supreme Court of India consists of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges as prescribed by law.
➤ Key Points:
⇒ Original Strength – Initially, the Supreme Court had a Chief Justice and 7 other judges in 1950.
⇒ Present Strength – The Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act, 2019 increased the strength to 33 judges + 1 Chief Justice of India, making it 34 in total.
⇒ Appointment – Judges are appointed by the President of India based on the recommendation of the Collegium system.
⇒ Tenure & Retirement – Judges hold office until the age of 65 years and can only be removed by impeachment in Parliament.

★ The Supreme Court of India currently has 33 judges along with the Chief Justice, making a total of 34 judges.