➤ Fundamental Duties are listed in Article 51A of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 introduced 10 Fundamental Duties, and the 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th duty.
➤ “Mandatory national service of 5 years” is not a Fundamental Duty.
➤ Fundamental Duties include:
➔ Developing scientific temper, humanism, and the spirit of inquiry and reform (Article 51A(h)).
➔ Safeguarding public property and abjuring violence (Article 51A(i)).
➔ Cherishing and following noble ideas from the national struggle for freedom (Article 51A(b)).
➤ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be legally enforced.

★ Article 51A → Contains Fundamental Duties.
★ 42nd Amendment, 1976 → Introduced Fundamental Duties.
★ 86th Amendment, 2002 → Added the 11th duty.
★ Non-justiciable → Cannot be enforced by law.
★ No provision → Mandatory national service is not a Fundamental Duty.

➤ Fundamental Duties are mentioned in Article 51A of the Indian Constitution.
➤ They were added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee.
➤ Originally, 10 Fundamental Duties were included, but the 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th duty.
➤ Fundamental Duties are inspired by the USSR (now Russia) Constitution.
➤ Unlike Fundamental Rights, these duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by the courts.

★ Article 51A → Fundamental Duties.
★ 42nd Amendment, 1976 → Introduced Fundamental Duties.
★ Swaran Singh Committee → Recommended Fundamental Duties.
★ 86th Amendment, 2002 → Added the 11th duty.
★ Non-justiciable → Not legally enforceable.

➤ Dual Citizenship is not a feature of the Indian Constitution.
➤ India follows a single citizenship system, meaning every Indian is a citizen of India only, regardless of the state or union territory they belong to.
➤ This concept is adopted from the British Constitution.
➤ In contrast, countries like the USA follow a dual citizenship system, where a person is a citizen of both the country and the specific state they belong to.

★ Single Citizenship → India follows a single citizenship system.
★ Adopted from → British Constitution.
★ USA Model → Follows dual citizenship.

➤ Articles 52 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution deal with the Union Executive.
➤ The Union Executive consists of:
  ★ President (Article 52-62)
  ★ Vice-President (Article 63-71)
  ★ Prime Minister & Council of Ministers (Article 74-75)
  ★ Attorney General of India (Article 76-78)
➤ The President is the constitutional head of India, while the Prime Minister is the executive head.
➤ The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

★ Part V (Articles 52-78) → Deals with the Union Executive.
★ President → Article 52-62.
★ Vice-President → Article 63-71.
★ Prime Minister & Council of Ministers → Article 74-75.
★ Attorney General of India → Article 76-78.

➤ Fundamental Duties are listed in Article 51A of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 introduced 10 Fundamental Duties, and the 86th Amendment Act, 2002 added the 11th duty.
➤ “To prohibit trade in rare and endangered species” is not a Fundamental Duty. It is covered under Article 48A (Directive Principles of State Policy – DPSP), which directs the state to protect and improve the environment and safeguard wildlife.
➤ Fundamental Duties include:
➔ Valuing and preserving the rich heritage of India’s composite culture (Article 51A(f)).
➔ Safeguarding public property and abjuring violence (Article 51A(i)).
➔ Upholding and protecting the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India (Article 51A(c)).
➤ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be legally enforced.

★ Article 51A → Contains Fundamental Duties.
★ 42nd Amendment, 1976 → Introduced Fundamental Duties.
★ 86th Amendment, 2002 → Added the 11th duty.
★ Non-justiciable → Cannot be enforced by law.
★ Article 48A → Protects wildlife, but is a DPSP, not a Fundamental Duty.

➤ The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) were borrowed from the Irish Constitution (Article 45).
➤ They are included in Part IV (Articles 36-51) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ DPSPs are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts, but they guide the government in policy-making.
➤ These principles aim to establish social and economic democracy in India.
➤ Some key DPSPs include:
➔ Article 39(a) → Equal pay for equal work.
➔ Article 39(b) → Distribution of wealth to subserve the common good.
➔ Article 41 → Right to work, education, and public assistance.
➔ Article 44 → Uniform Civil Code (UCC).

★ Part IV (Articles 36-51) → Deals with DPSPs.
★ Inspired by → Irish Constitution (Article 45).
★ Non-justiciable → Not legally enforceable.
★ Aim → Social & economic democracy.
★ Article 44 → Uniform Civil Code (UCC).

➤ India celebrates Constitution Day on 26th November every year.
➤ On 26th November 1949, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Indian Constitution.
➤ The Constitution officially came into effect on 26th January 1950, celebrated as Republic Day.
➤ Constitution Day was first observed in 2015, marking the 125th birth anniversary of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the chief architect of the Constitution.
➤ The day is observed to spread awareness about constitutional values and honor the efforts of the framers of the Constitution.

★ 26th November 1949 → Adoption of the Indian Constitution.
★ 26th January 1950 → Constitution came into effect (Republic Day).
★ Declared in 2015 → To honor Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
★ Purpose → Promote constitutional awareness.

➤ The President of India nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha (Upper House of Parliament).
➤ This is mentioned in Article 80 of the Indian Constitution.
➤ These members are nominated based on their expertise in fields like literature, science, art, and social service.
➤ The nomination ensures the presence of eminent personalities in the Rajya Sabha who contribute with their knowledge and experience.
➤ Some famous nominated members include Sachin Tendulkar (sports), Lata Mangeshkar (music), and Raghunath Mohapatra (art and culture).

★ Article 80 → President nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha.
★ Field of expertise → Literature, science, art, and social service.
★ Purpose → Ensure expert opinions in the Parliament.
★ Famous nominated members → Sachin Tendulkar, Lata Mangeshkar, Raghunath Mohapatra.

➤ Part IV (Articles 36 to 51) of the Indian Constitution deals with the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
➤ These principles are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts, but they guide the government in making policies for social and economic justice.
➤ DPSPs are inspired by the Irish Constitution (Article 45) and aim to establish a welfare state in India.
➤ Some key DPSPs include:
➔ Article 39(a) → Equal pay for equal work.
➔ Article 39(b) → Distribution of wealth to serve the common good.
➔ Article 41 → Right to work, education, and public assistance.
➔ Article 44 → Uniform Civil Code (UCC).
➔ Article 47 → Duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and improve public health.

★ Part IV (Articles 36-51) → Deals with DPSPs.
★ Inspired by → Irish Constitution (Article 45).
★ Non-justiciable → Cannot be enforced by courts.
★ Purpose → Establish a welfare state.
★ Article 44 → Calls for a Uniform Civil Code (UCC).

➤ Article 1 of the Indian Constitution states that “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.”
➤ The term “Union of States” was chosen instead of “Federation of States” to emphasize the indivisible nature of India.
➤ Unlike a federation where states have the right to secede, in India, states cannot secede from the Union.
➤ The structure of India is unitary in spirit but federal in form, meaning power is divided between the Centre and the States, but the Union has more authority.
➤ The names of the states and union territories are also mentioned in Schedules 1 of the Constitution.

★ Article 1 → Declares India as a Union of States.
★ Not a Federation → States cannot secede from India.
★ Federal in form, Unitary in spirit → Strong central authority.
★ Schedule 1 → Contains the names of all states and union territories.

➤ The Indian Constitution has established an independent judicial system to ensure the separation of powers and maintain the rule of law.
➤ The judiciary in India is independent from the executive and legislature, ensuring impartial justice.
➤ Article 50 of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) directs the state to separate the judiciary from the executive.
➤ The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority, followed by High Courts and subordinate courts.
➤ Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President of India and have security of tenure to maintain judicial independence.

★ Independent Judiciary → Judiciary functions without interference from the executive or legislature.
★ Article 50 → Ensures separation of judiciary from the executive.
★ Hierarchy → Supreme Court → High Courts → Subordinate Courts.
★ Security of tenure → Judges cannot be removed arbitrarily.
★ Final interpreter of the Constitution → Supreme Court has the power of judicial review.

➤ The Vice-President of India takes the oath of office before the President of India.
➤ This is mentioned in Article 69 of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The oath includes:
➔ Faithful discharge of duties.
➔ Allegiance to the Constitution of India.
➤ The Vice-President is also the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
➤ In the absence of the President, the Vice-President acts as the President under Article 65.

★ Article 69 → Oath of office of the Vice-President.
★ Administered by → President of India.
★ Vice-President → Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
★ Article 65 → Vice-President acts as President in case of vacancy.

➤ “To safeguard public property and to abjure violence” is a Fundamental Duty mentioned in Article 51A(i) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ Monuments like Humayun’s Tomb are part of India’s cultural heritage, and damaging them is against this duty.
➤ Citizens must protect historical sites, government buildings, and public infrastructure from any harm or misuse.
➤ Defacing monuments is a punishable offense under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.

★ Article 51A(i) → Safeguard public property and abjure violence.
★ Includes → Protection of historical sites, monuments, and public infrastructure.
★ Legal Protection → Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.
★ Punishable offense → Defacing public property leads to fines or imprisonment.

➤ Article 54 of the Indian Constitution deals with the election of the President of India.
➤ The President is elected indirectly by an Electoral College consisting of:
➔ Elected members of both Houses of Parliament.
➔ Elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of States and Union Territories (with legislatures).
➤ The nomination, election process, and disputes related to the President’s election are covered under Articles 54 to 58.
➤ The election follows the proportional representation system using the single transferable vote method.

★ Article 54 → Deals with the election of the President.
★ Electoral College → Includes elected MPs & MLAs of States/UTs.
★ Voting System → Proportional representation with a single transferable vote.
★ Article 55 → Describes the manner of election.
★ Article 58 → Lists the qualifications required to be President.

➤ “To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India” is a Fundamental Duty mentioned in Article 51A(e) of the Indian Constitution.
➤ It emphasizes maintaining peace and respecting diversity in a multi-religious and multicultural country like India.
➤ Citizens must avoid violence, religious hatred, and discrimination to uphold national unity.
➤ Promoting tolerance and brotherhood helps in creating a peaceful and inclusive society.

★ Article 51A(e) → Promote harmony and brotherhood among all citizens.
★ Encourages → Respect for religious, linguistic, and regional diversity.
★ Discourages → Violence, discrimination, and religious hatred.
★ Aims → To strengthen national unity and integrity.

➤ Article 40 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to organize Village Panchayats and give them the necessary powers to function as self-governing units.
➤ It is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) under Part IV of the Constitution.
➤ The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions and added Part IX (Articles 243 to 243O).
➤ The Panchayati Raj system follows a three-tier structure:
➔ Gram Panchayat → Village level.
➔ Panchayat Samiti → Block level.
➔ Zila Parishad → District level.

★ Article 40 → Directs the State to organize Village Panchayats.
★ Part of → Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
★ 73rd Amendment, 1992 → Gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj.
★ Three-tier system → Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad.
★ Empowers → Local self-governance in rural areas.

➤ India follows a multi-party system, where political parties are classified as national, state, or regional parties based on their performance in elections.
➤ The Election Commission of India (ECI) is responsible for registering and recognizing political parties under the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
➤ A party is recognized as a national or state party based on its vote share, seats won, and presence in multiple states.
➤ The Election Commission also allots election symbols to political parties.
➤ Political parties are not registered with the Supreme Court or Parliament, but with the Election Commission.

★ India’s Party System → Multi-party system (national, state, and regional parties).
★ Election Commission of India → Registers and recognizes political parties.
★ Representation of the People Act, 1951 → Governs party registration and recognition.
★ Election Symbols → Allotted by the Election Commission, not the President.
★ Parliament does not decide → Party status is given by the Election Commission.

➤ Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during a national emergency declared under Article 352 (on grounds of war or external aggression).
➤ Article 20 → Protection in respect of conviction for offenses
➔ Prohibits retrospective criminal laws (Ex-post facto laws).
➔ Prohibits double jeopardy (punishment for the same offense twice).
➔ Prohibits self-incrimination (being forced to testify against oneself).
➤ Article 21 → Protection of life and personal liberty
➔ Ensures that no person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.
➤ According to Article 359, the enforcement of Fundamental Rights (except Articles 20 & 21) can be suspended during an emergency.
➤ This safeguard was upheld in the 1978 Minerva Mills case, ensuring that basic human rights remain protected.

★ Article 20 → Protection against retrospective laws, double jeopardy, and self-incrimination.
★ Article 21 → Right to life and personal liberty.
★ Cannot be suspended → Even during a national emergency (Article 352).
★ Article 359 → Allows suspension of other Fundamental Rights but not Articles 20 & 21.
★ Minerva Mills Case (1978) → Reaffirmed protection of Articles 20 & 21.

➤ Part IV-A of the Indian Constitution, which deals with Fundamental Duties, was inserted by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
➤ It added Article 51A, listing 10 Fundamental Duties for Indian citizens.
➤ These duties were introduced based on the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee.
➤ Later, the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002, added the 11th Fundamental Duty.
➤ Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable, meaning they cannot be enforced by courts, but they serve as a moral obligation for citizens.

★ 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 → Inserted Part IV-A (Fundamental Duties).
★ Article 51A → Lists Fundamental Duties.
★ Swaran Singh Committee → Recommended Fundamental Duties.
★ 86th Amendment Act, 2002 → Added the 11th Fundamental Duty.
★ Non-justiciable → Cannot be enforced by courts.

➤ Part IX of the Indian Constitution deals with Panchayats and was added by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.
➤ It includes Articles 243 to 243O, which provide for the structure, powers, and functioning of Panchayati Raj institutions.
➤ The Panchayati Raj system is a three-tier structure:
➔ Gram Panchayat → Village level.
➔ Panchayat Samiti → Block level.
➔ Zila Parishad → District level.
➤ Article 243B mandates the establishment of Panchayats in every state.
➤ Article 243G empowers Panchayats to function as self-governing institutions.

★ Part IX (Articles 243-243O) → Deals with Panchayati Raj.
★ 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 → Gave constitutional status to Panchayats.
★ Three-tier system → Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad.
★ Article 243B → Mandatory establishment of Panchayats.
★ Article 243G → Empowers

➤ Article 40 of the Indian Constitution directs the State to organize Village Panchayats and grant them the necessary powers for self-governance.
➤ It is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) under Part IV of the Constitution.
➤ The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions and added Part IX (Articles 243 to 243O).
➤ The Panchayati Raj system follows a three-tier structure:
➔ Gram Panchayat → Village level.
➔ Panchayat Samiti → Block level.
➔ Zila Parishad → District level.

★ Article 40 → Directs the State to organize Village Panchayats.
★ Part of → Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
★ 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 → Gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj.
★ Three-tier system → Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad.
★ Empowers → Local self-governance in rural areas.

➤ Nagaland is one of the states that do not have a Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI).
➤ This is because Nagaland follows its own traditional system of self-governance, which is protected under Article 371A of the Indian Constitution.
➤ The state has village councils instead of a Panchayati Raj system, as per the Nagaland Village and Area Councils Act, 1978.
➤ Other states without a Panchayati Raj system include Meghalaya and Mizoram, as they have their own tribal governance structures.

★ Nagaland → No Panchayati Raj system due to Article 371A.
★ Alternative System → Village councils as per the Nagaland Village and Area Councils Act, 1978.
★ Other states without PRI → Meghalaya & Mizoram.
★ Reason → Special provisions for tribal governance.

➤ Fundamental Rights are derived from the U.S. Constitution, not the British Constitution.
➤ They are enshrined in Part III of the Indian Constitution, from Articles 12 to 35.
➤ Fundamental Rights can be enforced by law, and if violated, individuals can approach the Supreme Court (Article 32) or High Courts (Article 226).
➤ Article 21 guarantees the Right to Life and Personal Liberty, ensuring that no person shall be deprived of life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

★ Fundamental Rights derived from → U.S. Constitution.
★ Articles 12-35 → Cover Fundamental Rights.
★ Article 32 & 226 → Allow enforcement through courts.
★ Article 21 → Right to Life and Personal Liberty.
★ British Constitution → Inspired Parliamentary system, not Fundamental Rights.

➤ Article 123 of the Indian Constitution grants the President of India the ordinance-making power.
➤ The President can promulgate ordinances when Parliament is not in session and immediate action is required.
➤ An ordinance has the same force and effect as a law passed by Parliament but must be approved by Parliament within six weeks of its reassembly.
➤ The ordinance-making power is subject to judicial review, and the Supreme Court can strike it down if it violates the Constitution.
➤ A similar power is given to Governors under Article 213 for state legislatures.

★ Article 123 → Gives ordinance-making power to the President.
★ When used? → When Parliament is not in session.
★ Approval required → Must be approved within 6 weeks of Parliament reassembling.
★ Judicial Review → Supreme Court can strike down unconstitutional ordinances.
★ Article 213 → Similar power for Governors at the state level.

➤ Articles 79 to 122 of the Indian Constitution deal with the Parliament and its proceedings.
➤ The Parliament of India consists of:
➔ President (Article 79)
➔ Lok Sabha (House of the People) (Article 81)
➔ Rajya Sabha (Council of States) (Article 80)
➤ Article 85 deals with the sessions of Parliament, prorogation, and dissolution.
➤ Article 100 specifies the voting procedure in Parliament.
➤ Article 105 grants powers, privileges, and immunities to Parliament members.

★ Articles 79-122 → Deal with Parliament and its proceedings.
★ Article 79 → Structure of Parliament.
★ Article 85 → Sessions and dissolution.
★ Article 100 → Voting in Parliament.
★ Article 105 → Powers & privileges of MPs.